For example, the value-related vmPFC/mOFC BOLD signal observed in experiments on willingness to pay (Plassmann et al., 2007 and Plassmann et al., 2010)

disappears when subjects are given no option to choose but instead are instructed on which response they should make. Perhaps more of a concern is that when experimental participants watch other individuals playing a public goods game without taking part themselves, the vmPFC/mOFC BOLD signal may reflect aspects of the expected value of choices for the other playing individuals (Cooper et al., 2010). One possibility is that vmPFC/mOFC BOLD signal reflects the value of choices to the individuals to whom the scanned participant’s attention is drawn; the vmPFC/mOFC signal in public good games is larger when the scanned participant’s attention is directed to the common good of the group by the experimental instructions. An alternative interpretation, however, might be that the vmPFC selective HDAC inhibitors signal recorded by Cooper et al. (2010) does actually reflect something about how rewarding the situation is to the subject. The vmPFC/mOFC signal may reflect the fact that the subject is likely to have “other regarding preferences”

(Fehr and Camerer, 2007 and Behrens et al., 2009) and is therefore unlikely to solely consider his or her own best interests when judging whether an action is rewarding but instead to naturally perceive choices SP600125 price as rewarding when they benefit others. out In contrast to the view that vmPFC/mOFC activity automatically reflects the value of options there is also evidence that vmPFC/mOFC valuation signals reflect a comparison between the values of different options that might be chosen (Boorman et al., 2009, FitzGerald et al., 2009, Basten et al., 2010 and Philiastides et al., 2010). In other words, even if value signals in vmPFC/mOFC appear to be automatically generated and present in the absence of choice they are closely tied to the guidance of decisions. For example, Boorman et al. (2009) showed that vmPFC/mOFC BOLD signal is positively correlated with the value of an option that a

subject chooses and negatively correlated with the value of an option that a subject rejects (Figures 3Bi and 3Bii). In other studies, however, this value comparison signal is not seen (Wunderlich et al., 2010). Nevertheless, even in the absence of a clear value comparison signal the value of both options is represented at the beginning of the choice period but only the value of the chosen option is represented at later stages in a trial (Wunderlich et al., 2010). A difficulty for an account of vmPFC/mOFC function emphasizing value comparison and decision-making is its activation in any experiment that does not require a decision from participants (Lebreton et al., 2009 and Cooper et al., 2010). Particularly intriguing is the finding that vmPFC/mOFC value comparison signals reflect the value of the chosen option minus the value of the unchosen option (Boorman et al., 2009).