A comprehensive investigation

of the genetic correlates of musicality should also include data from personality and various psychosocial instruments. Of particular interest would be measures of the Big Five Factor Structure, the Tellegen Absorption Scale, the Creativity Achievement Questionnaire, and measures of self-discipline and interpersonal communication, alongside measures of musical engagement and background, such as The Salk and McGill Musical Inventory and the Queens University Musical Experience Questionnaire. Ideally, these should be correlated with scores on the music battery, as well as with genes and neural structures. The selection and choice of variables for heritability studies should be data driven. Searching for heritability Lenvatinib BMS 754807 of one supervariable called “music” is too coarse a level of analysis and will miss the many nuances of musicality described above. On the other hand, attempting to correlate genes with every possible behavioral variant is too fine a level of analysis and will obscure any latent unifying or underlying factors that bind together different variables. Association studies should include those nonmusical genetic factors and personality trait variables discussed above. Furthermore, it is important to use large samples in order to avoid false

positives that may arise from the enormous number of genes involved compared to the sample size of individuals (Robbins and Kousta, 2011). Also important are independent replications and family-based association methods in which genetic differences both within and between families are used (Ebstein et al., 2010). The subsequent narrowing of criteria should be data driven, and the distinctions or correlations between musical potential and musical achievement will ideally be revealed in the data. Such an approach should allow researchers to remain alert to the presence of endophenotypes that may arise from psychological,

neurochemical, or biological bases. As with any other complex trait, music is likely to be the result of thousands of small-effect loci, which together can produce many significant heritability quotients. A study of the genetics of dance (Bachner-Melman et al., 2005) found evidence for involvement of the AVPR1a (vasopressin) gene, which had been previously shown to mediate affiliative, social, and courtship behaviors, learning and memory, and, interestingly, pain sensitivity. In addition, significant differences were found between dancers and nondancers in the serotonin transporter SLC6A4, which had previously been shown to play a role in spiritual experiences. Moreover, SLC6A4 enhances the release of vasopressin in the brain, creating a link between the two genes and their expression in professional dancers and suggesting epistasis, or gene-gene interactions.