, 2006; Alexander et al., 2011), while frontal cortical gray matter volumes do show changes with age in both

species (Alexander et al., 2008, 2011; Shamy et al., 2011). Using a high resolution variant of functional MRI (fMRI) http://www.selleckchem.com/products/chir-99021-ct99021-hcl.html developed to evaluate resting-state metabolism within hippocampal substructures, Small et al. (Small et al., 2002, 2004; Moreno et al., 2007) have shown reduced metabolism in the dentate gyrus of aged mice, monkeys and humans. In animal models, this correlated with memory impairment. Thus, examining activity within hippocampal subregions provides a sensitive method to detect functional changes, even if volume does not differ. Furthermore, it has also been shown that taking individual health into account helps to explain subregion volume differences across age. Shing et al. (2011) report that reduced CA3 and dentate gyrus volume in older adults correlates with memory decline, while reduced volume of the CA1 region correlates with hypertension. Additionally, there is evidence in human samples for age-related signal degradation of white matter in the GDC-0449 manufacturer region of the

perforant pathway (Yassa et al., 2010), the main input to the hippocampus from the entorhinal cortex, reduced white matter volume in this region (Stoub et al., 2012), and dendritic diffusion defects in the dentate gyrus–CA3 region (Yassa et al., 2011). Interestingly, data obtained from electrically-evoked field potential recordings in the dentate gyrus of aged rats (Barnes & McNaughton, 1980; Foster et al., 1991) predicted entorhinal axon collateral pruning. The observation that led to this suggestion was the fact that there was no change in the stimulus current necessary to elicit responses from these axons (i.e., no threshold change), but the maximum amplitude Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase of the compound action potential response was reduced in old compared to young rats. Assuming no layer 2 entorhinal cortical cell loss with aging (confirmed in rats: Merrill et al.,

2001; Rapp et al., 2002; and in monkeys: Gazzaley et al., 1997), the reduced maximal amplitude in old rats suggested that there were fewer entorhinal axon collateral fibers running in the perforant pathway. This hypothesis fits rather well with the MRI observation of age-related reductions in perforant path white matter volume in normal aged humans reported by Stoub et al. (2012), but direct counts of entorhinal axon collaterals have yet to be made in aged rats. With the advent of stereological methods, one feature of the aging hippocampus that can be ruled out as significantly contributing to volume or metabolic changes is cell number. That is, cell numbers are preserved in normal aging in the principal cell types of the hippocampus (granule cells, CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells) in humans (e.g., West et al., 1993), nonhuman primates (e.g., Keuker et al., 2003) and rodents (Rapp & Gallagher, 1996; Rasmussen et al., 1996).