By monitoring which cells were dying in the epiblast, Clavería et al. could demonstrate that Caspase-3 activation preferentially occurred in stem cells with lower c-Myc levels [ 22••]. Altogether, these findings provide strong evidence that natural Myc-driven cell competition results in selection of embryonic stem cells with high anabolic capacity. This optimization of epiblast stem cells may be crucial, since they represent the building blocks for all future tissues and competition would ensure that only ‘prime material’

will be considered. The analysis of cell competition in mice revealed high similarity to what is known from Drosophila. The above-mentioned studies did only Autophagy inhibitor observe different results with respect to potential diffusible factors involved in cell competition. Strikingly, Sancho et al. found that competition-dependent

cell death was even triggered in situations where direct cell–cell contact was prevented between ESCs, by culturing wild-type cells in a separate compartment above BMP-compromised cells [ 21••]. In contrast, Miguel Torres and colleagues saw that conditioned media from ESCs undergoing supercompetition due to mosaic dMyc overexpression, was not sufficient to trigger apoptosis in healthy wild-type ESCs [ 22••]. A secreted killing signal has been previously postulated based on competition assays with insect cells [ 23 and 24], but its production seemed to require initial cell–cell interaction between competing cells. Finally, Clavería et al. showed that p38 MAPK apoptosis in the mouse epiblast and ESC cultures, loser cells are engulfed by neighbors. In the future, it will be interesting to know whether the engulfment

step in mammals plays a causal role to induce death, as proposed by the laboratory of Nicholas Baker [ 25] or if it is just required to clear apoptotic debris, as we believe it is the case Pomalidomide nmr in Drosophila [ 26]. Cell competition may be important during development, but what about adult tissues with a high turnover rate? In a recent work, Martins et al. addressed the questions whether replacement of ‘old’ thymus-resident T cell progenitors by new bone marrow-derived stem cells may show typical features of cell competition [ 27•• and 28]. They indeed found evidence that thymus-resident and incoming progenitors compete for the hematopoietic growth factor IL-7 ( Figure 1d). Fresh progenitors immigrating from the bone marrow seemed to compete more efficiently for IL7, which led to induction of the pro-survival protein Bcl-2. The authors propose a model wherein IL-7 availability is limited for thymus-resident progenitors as long as there is a steady supply of new progenitors to the thymus [ 27••]. Therefore, Bcl-2 levels tend to drop in thymus-resident progenitors during competition, leading to their death.