e., exercising 4 days/wk) have lower levels of IL-6 and greater levels of IL-10 when compared to older men who perform a low amount of physical activity worldwide distributors (i.e., not active most days of the week) [78]. Moreover, multiple studies show that lifestyle interventions with exercise impact the inflammatory response [95�C98]. Balagopal et al. [95] reported that obese adolescents who underwent a 3-month lifestyle intervention of enhanced physical activity and nutrition habits had decreased body fat percentage, insulin resistance, CRP, and IL-6. Additionally, nine months of endurance training in 14 individuals preparing for a marathon resulted in decreased levels of CRP [92]. Likewise, an exercise intervention of 3 years, which gave detailed advice in regard to physical activity, in 60 obese women resulted in weight loss along with decreased levels of TNF-�� [99].

In fact, an 8-week exercise-training program consisting of 4 days/wk of cycling between 40 and 50% VO2 peak did not affect insulin sensitivity or CRP levels despite improvements in aerobic fitness and endothelial function [96]. One possible explanation for these conflicting results is that the intervention duration of 8 weeks was too short to elicit changes in insulin sensitivity and CRP levels. Ultimately, it seems that long-term exercise interventions (greater than 8 weeks) are effective in reduce the inflammation response and improve physical fitness.3.5. Summary Obesity is a chronic inflammatory condition, which enhances the risk of CVD and is associated with various inflammatory cytokines (TNF-�� and IL-6).

When introduced as a new stressor, exercise acutely increases catabolic responses [85], resulting in muscle fatigue [74]. However, research indicates that regular participation in exercise leads to decreased systemic inflammation [93]. Indeed, Colbert et al. [72] related higher levels of physical activity to lower levels of IL-6 and CRP. Furthermore, exercise is beneficial during the aging process to decrease catabolic hormone responses [100]. Consequently, exercise seems to provide significant benefits that enhance immune function and decrease inflammation. Thus, exercise is recommended as an effective strategy to positively alter obesity-related immune function. 4. Nutrition and Inflammation4.1. Macronutrients: Quality and Quantity4.1.1. Energy Content Chronic inflammation is influenced by energy balance.

Acute overconsumption of energy has consistently resulted in increases in markers of inflammation [101]. These increases occur with or without weight gain, suggesting that chronic inflammation in overweight or obese individuals may be strongly influenced by caloric load and not necessarily the primary result of increased adiposity. This may also help to explain the prevalence of chronic Dacomitinib disease in the Western world where diets often include calorie-dense foods (e.g., ��fast food��). Conversely, caloric restriction and/or fasting can also result in increases in inflammation [102].