In order to investigate the mechanism of maintenance of ΔΨm, a series of mitochondrial toxins were applied and their effects on ΔΨm were observed. All control cells and VCP KD SH-SY5Y cells showed no significant response to the F1F0-ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin (0.2 μg/ml), while subsequent inhibition of complex I by rotenone (5 μM) caused a rapid loss of potential ( Figure S2A). However, application of oligomycin to patient fibroblasts carrying VCP mutations resulted in a modest depolarization, suggesting that complex V may be partially working in reverse mode

in these cells, in order to maintain the ΔΨm ( Figure S2B). Application of rotenone (5 μM) to inhibit complex I then generated a strong depolarization. Complete depolarization was assessed in all cell models by addition of the PS-341 concentration mitochondrial uncoupler carbonylcyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP) (1 μM) ( Figure S2B). Taken together, these data suggest that ΔΨm is mainly maintained by respiration in VCP-deficient cells. The redox state of NADH or FAD reflects the activity of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) and the rate of substrate supply. We measured the basal levels of NADH (substrate for the ETC complex I) and FAD autofluorescence and generated the “redox indexes” by expressing basal NADH or FAD levels as a percentage of the difference

between the maximally oxidized and maximally reduced signals. The maximally oxidized signal is defined as the response to 1 μM FCCP that stimulates maximal respiration, while the maximally reduced signal is defined as the response to 1 mM Torin 1 research buy NaCN that fully inhibits respiration. Figure 2A shows average traces for NADH autofluorescence in untransfected, SCR, and VCP KD SH-SY5Y cells. The NADH redox index generated

was those significantly lower in transient VCP KD SH-SY5Y cells (17% ± 2%, n = 8) compared to control untransfected (28% ± 3%, n = 8) and SCR-transfected (29% ± 3%, n = 8) cells ( Figure 2B), indicating a depletion of NADH under basal conditions. NADH redox index in patient fibroblasts was also lower than in the age-matched controls (patient 1 = 49% ± 7%, n = 9; patient 2 = 48% ± 8%, n = 8; patient 3 = 43% ± 9%, n = 10; control 1 = 84% ± 10%, n = 7; control 2 = 66% ± 7%, n = 7; control 3 = 83% ± 9%, n = 8) ( Figure 2C). We then measured the FAD autofluorescence in SH-SY5Y cells. Figure 2D shows average traces for FAD in untransfected, SCR, and VCP KD SH-SY5Y cells. The generated FAD redox index was significantly higher in transient VCP KD SH-SY5Y cells (75% ± 13%, n = 4) compared to control untransfected (21% ± 5%; n = 4) and SCR-transfected (32% ± 4%; n = 4) cells ( Figure 2E). We were unable to measure the FAD redox state in fibroblasts due to the very low level of FAD autofluorescence in these cells.