It is important to test how sensitive BOLD connectivity is to oscillatory

frequencies lower than gamma because it is not necessary for local computation and large-scale communication to recruit the same frequencies of oscillatory activity. Rather, low frequencies may be advantageous and commonly used for interactions between distant brain areas (Fujisawa and Buzsáki, 2011; Siegel et al., 2012). A number of electrophysiological studies have demonstrated that brain oscillations show statistically INCB024360 cost nested coupling, with low frequencies modulating high frequencies (Buzsáki and Wang, 2012; Jensen and Colgin, 2007; Schroeder and Lakatos, 2009). Given that different oscillations are associated with different spatiotemporal scales (Buzsáki and Draguhn, 2004; von Stein and Sarnthein, 2000), cross-frequency coupling may integrate information transmission over a large-scale network with local cortical processing (Canolty Selleck Gemcitabine and Knight, 2010). We thus hypothesized that (1) BOLD functional connectivity predominantly reflects low-frequency neural interactions between remote brain areas (e.g., alpha [8–13 Hz] and theta [4–8 Hz]); (2) low frequencies modulate local high-frequency activity (e.g., gamma), which

predominantly reflects BOLD signals from an individual area; and (3) such cross-frequency coupling links BOLD correlations in distributed network nodes to local BOLD activations. To test our hypotheses, we first

mapped out thalamo-cortical networks (i.e., network defined as a set of interconnected brain regions) derived Astemizole from BOLD signals acquired from macaque monkeys. Given that task-free fMRI studies have involved various experimental conditions in humans (free gaze, eyes closed, and fixation) and monkeys (free gaze and anesthesia), our study incorporated three experimental conditions to allow generalization and ready comparison with the literature: a task-free, free-gaze condition, defined as resting state here; a fixation task; and anesthesia. We focused on a thalamo-cortical visual network constituted by the lateral intraparietal area (LIP), the temporal occipital area (TEO), area V4, and the pulvinar, which has been well studied in terms of its anatomical connectivity (e.g., Felleman and Van Essen, 1991; Saalmann et al., 2012; Shipp, 2003; Ungerleider et al., 2008). After verifying BOLD correlations across our visual network, we performed simultaneous electrophysiological recordings from the same four network areas and measured their functional connectivity based on LFPs. We included a thalamic nucleus, the pulvinar, in our study because the limited evidence available suggests that the thalamus makes an important contribution to cortical oscillations (Hughes et al., 2004; Saalmann et al., 2012; Steriade and Llinás, 1988). We used a combination of fMRI retinotopic mapping (Arcaro et al.