Pairwise t-tests of polymorphism between 10 50-marker windows containing the P1 locus and the 10 50-marker windows in adjacent upstream and downstream regions identified different π- and Tajima’s-D values at a high significance level (P < 0.001, Table 3). These results indicated that the level of diversity at the P1 locus was quite low. It also reveals that this region evolved by non-neutral

mutations, suggesting a strong effect of artificial selection. Selection for specific alleles of genes that influence important agronomic buy Thiazovivin traits takes place during domestication and improvement of crops, and reduces the diversity of these genes in selected populations compared to unselected ones [38]. Typically, domestication genes show reduced allelic diversity among both ancient and modern varieties, whereas crop improvement may reduce the specific allele frequencies in selected varieties [39]. Many alleles and structural variants of P1 with tissue-specific selleck expression patterns exist; these confer diversity in cob glume color phenotype [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19] and [22]. This suggests that P1 is less likely to be a domestication event than an improvement event as a result of selection during modern breeding after domestication.

This hypothesis is supported by the fact that distinct allele frequency differences were identified among maize groups [30] created by breeding and commercialization activities. The samples used in this study were collected randomly without selection for color, and thus the phenotypic distribution observed here could reflect the color distribution in natural maize populations. Previous recurrent selection activities during maize breeding

demonstrated that selection on cob color had greatly influenced several traits including grain yield in different genetic backgrounds [25]. Empirical explanations from experienced maize breeders indicated that red cob glume seemed to be correlated with better cob hardness, a desirable trait for mechanical Galeterone or manual threshing, and associated with resistance to mold during whole ear storage; however, no substantiating evidence is reported. This partially explains breeders’ and farmers’ preference for selection of red cobs in the temperate maize zone in China. Therefore, the response of the genome to selection for cob glume color should be evaluated based on the selection for cob color per se and its side effects on selection for grain yield. Compared with temperate lines, tropical lines have a much higher level of genetic diversity [40], [41], [42] and [43]. However, tropical maize and its original landraces and open-pollinated varieties (OPV) were subjected to lower selection pressure [41] due to a shorter history of hybrid breeding, compared with that for breeding temperate maize in the U.S. and China.