tritici referred to as the ‘take all’ disease causing severe crop losses in saponin deficient barley and wheat [96]. This hypothesised saponin-conferred resistance of oat is supported by the ability of G. graminis var. avenae to infect oat due to the possession of the saponin-detoxifying enzyme avenacinase [97]. Saponins are induced by elicitors of defence responses such as jasmonate derivatives [98] again emphasising their role

in defence. In the past, research on saponins has proved difficult, relying on HPLC methods or non-specific stains [88] however recent developments in mass spectrometry and metabolite profiling are enabling the high throughput screening and identification of a large number of these secondary metabolites. These techniques Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are now being employed to Selleckchem C59 ascertain biosynthetic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mechanisms of saponins and related compounds in different plant species and have potential to identify new metabolites belonging to this class of compounds [99]. GC-MS has been combined with gene expression analysis to identify a number of genes involved in

triterpene synthesis to also be present in rice. Expression of the oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) enzyme AsbAB1 encoding the β-amyrin synthase in rice showed that rice is capable of β-amyrin synthesis [100] hence identifying the potential for metabolic engineering of saponin regulated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical resistance in other cereals. A method for the quantification of saponins using LC-MS/MS has recently been developed [101]. 7. Conclusion This review has covered the major classes of secondary metabolites Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical present in cereals with important roles in pathogen defence. The majority of these plant secondary metabolites, whether preformed or induced, are compartmentalised within vacuoles or other specialised cellular compartments to avoid self-toxicity. A common mechanism of activation is enzymatic hydrolysis following vacuole disruption during Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical tissue damage caused by the pathogen. Other compounds accumulate in the apoplast such as benzoxazanoids, which act as defence regulatory signals. Volatile secondary metabolites are also involved in pathogen defence with

a number of volatile terpenoids demonstrated to increase in response to pathogen attack. Infected plants are also capable of stimulating volatile release from uninfected neighbouring plants, a feature that may be invaluable to increasing crop resistance to pathogens. The mechanism of action very of the antimicrobial secondary metabolites discussed in this review varies from membrane disruption and pore formation (saponins and terpenoids) to interference with aerobic respiration (cyanogenic glycosides) and inhibition of microbial enzymes, chelation of metals required for microbial enzymes and polymerisation forming crystalline physical defence barriers (flavonoids). Microbes are constantly evolving mechanisms to overcome the activity of such compounds as are plants evolving new defence mechanisms.