Activated motion of smooth muscle cell and migration motion of endo thelial cell may possibly imply phenotypic modulation of individuals cells. Neuropilin 1,validated for being targeted by miR 1,participates in various various kinds of signal ing pathways that management cell migration, one example is, NRP1 binding with VEGF is essential for stimulation of endothelial cell migration. Among the list of essential gamers during the pathophysiology of IA is irritation. Some stud ies at the transcriptome degree are in accordance with all the histopathological series that linked endothelial dys function, reduction of mural cells, inflammatory cell infiltration and degradation of your matrix with sIA wall rupture. Even though inflammatory macrophages and lymphocytes in filtrate the aneurysm wall, a hyperlink concerning their presence and aneurysm growth with subsequent rupture is just not wholly understood.
5 from twelve functions are re lated to immune response, amid those functions, migra tion of phagocytes, impacted by seven miRNAs and eleven genes, has the highest potential to get activated. Genes validated to interact these details with miRNA incorporate PNP, MYC, CD276, PIM1, THBS1, F11R and PLAU and so forth. which are involved in immune response. As an example, purine nucleoside phos phorylase targeted by miR one,is connected with T cell immunity, B cell immunity and anti entire body responses. Functional evaluation uncovered some molecules targeted miRNAs with substantial prediction, validation with the relation ship in between the miRNA and these predicted targets are needed for extending the molecular network of IA. Some upregulated genes expressed in intracranial arter ies as well as NLR family members, tumor necrosis issue superfamily, interleukin, fibronectin and chemokine are predicted targets of down regulated miRNAs in our examine. Prior scientific studies have implied their importance in IA.
NLRP1, predicted target of miR 143 3p, is a mem ber of the Ced 4 relatives of apoptosis proteins that can induce caspase one activation by means of the assembly of in flammasomes, multiprotein complexes, which additional reading are important for creating mature proinflammatory cytokines includ ing IL 1B and IL18. IL18 is also a predicted target of miR 143 3p, which increase early stage apoptosis of cultured HUVEC cells,and improve the death of VEC. One other apoptosis connected gene is TNFSF15, predicted target of miR 145 5p, which belongs on the tumor necrosis issue ligand family members acts as an autocrine component to induce apoptosis in endothe lial cells by activating NF kappaB and MAP kinases. FN1, targeted by miR 1, is involved in cell adhesion and migration processes. Two cytokine, CCL2 and CCL7, have been targeted by miR 1, miR 23a 3p and miR 143 3p respec tively. CCL2 displays chemotactic activity for monocytes and basophils which is implicated during the pathogen esis of atherosclerosis which is characterized by monocytic infiltrates.
Monthly Archives: March 2014
Regardless of the truth that the damaging feedback smooths the Ra
In spite of the truth that the adverse feedback smooths the RasGTP ppERK dose re sponse partnership, a threshold for ppERK activation persists. This threshold element even more enhances cell to cell variability in ppERK ranges, and leads to bimodal responses on the population degree. Hence, the resulting bi modal distribution relies on a mixture of the threshold conduct along with a linear ppERK enhance followed by satur ation conduct with raising EGF dose. Surprisingly and counterintuitively, bimodality won’t need switch like behavior with the single cell degree, but can arise from cell to cell variability in protein expression in addition to a pathway activation threshold. Consequently, cells can retain the robustness positive aspects presented by detrimental suggestions,when producing on off responses at the cell population degree that are believed for being crucial for cell fate choices.
Our observations are unlikely to become brought on by a frac tion of cells simply just not binding kinase inhibitor S3I-201 ligand. Initially, beneath our experimental situations,with the lowest ligand dose,the ratio of EGF molecules to cells is about 1000, generating it very unlikely that a cell doesn’t encounter a ligand molecule. Second, for practically all EGF doses, a substantial fraction of cells is in the ERK on population at some point in time, indicat ing that the majority cells are already activated and for that reason had bound ligand. How might cells nonetheless create reliable selleck inhibitor signals regardless of protein expression noise 1 possibility is cells possess a trusted fold transform response of ppERK from basal amounts, and that downstream of ppERK cells utilize techniques that sense fold alterations instead of absolute ranges. The truth is this fold transform situation has a short while ago been proven to become the situation.
In cells stably expressing ERK2 YFP in the en dogenous promoter, EGF stimulation led to widely various greatest nuclear ERK2 YFP accumulation, having a coeffi cient of variation of about 0. three. However, normalizing the maximum nuclear ERK2 YFP signal through the basal amounts of ERK2 YFP from the identical cell, which yields fold transform responses, lowers the CV by around 3 fold. This is often constant with our observed results of complete ERK abundance variability to the total variance of ppERK from the ERK on population. To sense these fold improvements, rather then absolute levels, a cell may use a variety one incoherent feedforward loop,in which an input X activates both an intermediate Y and also the output Z, but Y represses Z. Such a network framework may in principle be downstream of ppERK,which leads to the immediate early expression of several genes together with c fos, which could mediate common transcriptional repression maybe even of itself. Whilst protein expression noise is undoubtedly a hin drance to some biological functions, and evolution has chosen for mechanisms this kind of because the I1 FFL that allow a cell to cope with this noise, you will find potential rewards of and possibly even very important functions for such noise.
Following solubilization with 1% SDS, absorbance was measured In
Soon after solubilization with 1% SDS, absorbance was measured. Invadopodia assay Ethanol flamed sterile 18 mm glass cover slips were positioned from the wells of the twelve very well tissue culture plate and had been coated with 50 ug ml poly D lysine for twenty min at room temperature. The coverslips have been then covered with 0. 5% glutaraldehyde for 15 min, then had been coated with 37 C preheated 0. 2% gelatin and Alexa Fluor 488 or 568 gelatin mix ture at a eight. 1 ratio for 10 min at area temperature. The residual reactive groups inside the gelatin matrix have been quenched with 5 mg ml sodium borohydride for 15 min at space temperature. Cells were plated at a concentration of two ? 104 cover slip and incubated at 37 C for twelve h. Cells had been stained for F actin with fluorescent phalloidin. Migration assay Adenovirus contaminated cells have been seeded in to the upper compartment of the 12 nicely chemotaxis chamber.
Both the upper and reduce compartments had been full of MEM containing 0. 35% BSA and were selleck chemical chk inhibitor physically separated by a polycar bonate membrane precoated for 4 h with one hundred ug ml collagen I. Cells had been incubated for 36 h at 37 C in 5% CO2 humidified problems, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, and stained with 1% borax and 1% methylene blue. Cells of the upper surface in the filter have been removed by using a cotton swab and these underneath have been quantified. Wound healing assay MTLn3 cells were grown on a collagen I precoated six well tissue culture plate to about 80% confluency. Cultures have been wounded by a heat polished glass pip ette and overlayered with dimethyl polysiloxane to cut back evaporation though permitting gasoline exchange. In depth observation for the behavior of live cells was monitored by obtaining pictures every single ten min over a time period of six h. The effects of ADF or cofilin silencing have been assessed by measur ing the time as well as distance migrated by cells to close the wound.
Reside cell migration in wound healing assay was followed applying a CCD camera on an inverted Leica microscope using ten?, one. 0 NA air objectives. Background Cancer kinase inhibitor enzalutamide cells have to obtain survival advantages which include growth signaling autonomy, apoptosis resistance, sus taining of angiogenesis beneath strain circumstances this kind of as nutrient and oxygen deprivation to successfully survive in tumor microenvironment. Whilst these compli cated processes entails regulation of survival associated gene expression each at the transcription and transla tional degree, current evidence recommend that translation ini tiation is known as a primary examine stage that regulates cancer connected mRNAs. Among the many leading mechanisms that cancer cells sustain greater efficiency of translation ini tiation involves stimulation of translation initiation fac tor, eIF4E.
Gene Ontology analysis within the in a different way expressed pr
Gene Ontology examination on the in a different way expressed proteins identified in proteomic examine As observed in Table 2, GO examination on molecular perform exposed that up regulated proteins in ACC samples have been enriched most in protein binding and oxidoreductase exercise. Expression of calreticulin, prohibitin and HSP60 in ACC, ACA and regular adrenocortical tissues by immunohistochemistry Three differentially expressed proteins, calreticulin, prohibitin and heat shock protein 60,which had not been reported in past studies on ACC sam ples, have been chosen to be validated within a bigger size of samples by immunishotchemistry. As witnessed in Figure two, the expression amounts of calreticulin, prohibitin and HSP60 have been considerably increased in ACC samples than those in ordinary adrenocortical tissues, which are consistent with all the findings in proteomic study.
Fur thermore, ACC tumors also demonstrated a larger expression degree of calreticulin and prohibitin than ACA tumors, but the expression of HSP60 showed no signifi cant big difference concerning malignant and benign adreno cortical tumors. Negative staining with nonspecific rabbit IgG handle was documented for each experiment. Association of calreticulin hop over to this website and prohibitin expression with clinicopathological traits in ACC Based on the criteria for IHC evaluation, the median H score of six was set because the reduce point to delineate minimal and large expression for calreticulin and prohibitin. The romantic relationship amongst calreticulin and prohibitin expre ssion with clinicopathological characteristics of ACC tu mors was analyzed. As noticed Table 3, no substantial differ ence was observed involving calreticulin and prohibitin expression with the many chinicopathological characteristics of ACC tumors, except that calreticulin overexpression was drastically linked with phases in ACC samples.
High calreticulin expression was noticed a lot more frequently in innovative stage ACC tumors than selleck inhibitor in early stage scenarios. Discussion On this examine, for the initial time, we carried out a 2 DE based proteomic examine to examine the protein profiling of ACC and normal adrenocortical tissues. A panel of pro tein markers have been recognized to become in a different way expressed. For only some samples could possibly be incorporated in conventional proteomic scientific studies, we adopted a sample pool strategy to boost the sample size. This method could also de crease the sample heterogeneity in some extent. To va lidate the results of proteomic evaluation, we additional validate 3 biomarkers calreticulin, prohibitin and HSP60 inside a greater dimension of samples by immuno histochemestry. These proteins had been picked for the following causes. 1st, these biomarkers possess a rela tively substantial expression level in ACC, compared with usual adrenocortical tissues.
An interaction in between SOX1 and STAT3 was observed, however no
An interaction among SOX1 and STAT3 was observed, nonetheless not among STAT3 and BMX, Furthermore, a significant reduce inside the expression of activated pSTAT3 was witnessed in both sub cellular fractions from the BMX and SOX1 shRNA contaminated cells, Nonetheless, there was no modify in total expression of STAT3. Also, a sig nificant reduce in STAT3 DNA binding exercise was observed in the two BMX and SOX1 shRNA infected cells, General, we see an interaction amongst SOX1 and STAT3, and upon loss of both BMX1 or SOX1 expression we observe a reduction of STAT3 activation. To more elucidate the connection among the SOX1 and STAT3, a decrease within the STAT3 target gene Mcl one and Stat3 itself have been observed by qRT PCR in shSOX1 clone 7 cells, Even so, no change was observed to the STAT3 targets genes Survivin or Myc, Finally, given that prostatospheres may also be a model for producing aggressive populations of cells in culture, we produced them from LNCaP cells and asked if STAT3 genes were impacted.
qRT PCR evaluation was performed and in contrast to adherent LNCaP cells, expression of Stat3 and Stat3 target genes Mcl one, Myc, and Survivin were greater as well as Bmx and Sox1, selleck chemicals As a way to establish what is likely to be regulating the greater expression of Stat3 and Sox1, transcription factor binding internet sites were analyzed working with Genomatix soft ware. In both the Stat3 and Sox1 promoters there are a variety of overlapping binding web pages for transcription elements using a significant matrix worth this kind of as GATA binding components, RNA polymerase II transcription issue IIB, NeuroD Beta2, TALE homeodomain class recognizing TG motifs, TCF11 transcription issue otherwise called Nrf2, Nkx homeodomain elements, and ultimately the Zinc finger transcription factor RU49 also named Zipro1, With this data, we will start to recognize why the methylation of Sox1 could serve as a master regulator of CSC invasion, therefore controlling its potential to undergo EMT and even further metastasize.
More evaluation applying the GEO database deter mined that the two Sox1 and Stat3 are expressed at larger amounts in metastatic prostate cancer tissues and not Bmx, Total, we show that SOX1 is definitely an epigenetically regulated target involved from the pro gression of prostate cancer, and is concerned in signaling by way of the STAT3 selleckchem pathway. Discussion The course of action of epigenetic regulation by DNA methyla tion requires covalent modification of cytosine nucleo tides in the C5 place in precise regions of CpG dinucleotides. Nearly all methylated CpG dinucleo tides are existing in heterochromatic areas, and therefore are unexpressed from the genome, The procedure of methylation in mammals evolved as being a technique of silen cing genes when their expression just isn’t essential.
This really is to not say that escape mutation is just not probab
This is often to not say that escape mutation is just not attainable in these B cells, but maybe happens at too low a frequency to have been isolated in these assays. Human EBV linked tumours may have a more complex etiology than the transgenic tumours described right here and certainly, quite a few EBV associated tumours show certainly no expression of LMP1. Nonetheless, in these EBV linked tumours that do display LMP1 expression, like NPC and HD, it is sensible to conclude from your wealth of information accessible on LMP1 action, that it has been factorial in the advancement of the tumour, since it has in these transgenic mouse tumours. The information described here present that LMP1 continues to provide a growth benefit in established tumours even when expressed at quite minimal degree and present proof of principle that in these tumour sorts LMP1 directed ther apy could be helpful.
Conclusions Commonly, therapeutic drug resistance emerges following cancer treatments as being a perform of the amount of tumour cells at the time of therapy read what he said also as their probable means to conquer the treatment method. As a viral protein LMP1 diverts cellular processes to impact an altered growth programme on the cell and by secretion of induced components, alter the cellular natural environment. It can be not a cellular products and as a result not fundamentally essen tial for the cell. You can find likely to be several mutational routes which could compensate for your reduction of LMP1 perform during the tumour cell and consequently multi ple feasible routes for resistant cells to emerge kinase inhibitor GSK256066 following any LMP1 directed therapy. Nonetheless, our results propose that inhibition of LMP1 may very well be highly productive with some tumours and potentially stall others, even in EBV linked cancer sorts wherever detection of LMP1 is inconsistent, such as NPC.
If combined with cytotoxic medicines, targeting LMP1 action could enhance final result in both epithelial and B cell tumours. Procedures EuLMP 1 and PyLMP1 transgenic lines and tumours Transgenic mouse line EuLMP1 line 39, expressing lower levels of LMP1 while in the lymphoid compart ment has become applied in the scientific studies described herein, maintained within the C57Bl six strain. Mice of this line develop lymphoma at an typical age of approximately 20 months, Lym phoma incidence from the transgenic mouse line EuEBNA one. 59 expressing EBNA 1 in the lymphoid compartment, continues to be previously described, Mice of line PyLMP1. 53 express LMP1 from the epidermis and therefore are maintained within the FVB mouse strain, Carcinomas were induced in PyLMP1. 53 mice utilizing a standard single dose DMBA followed by 20 week TPA topical chemical carcinogen regime as previ ously described, Cell lines Cell line 39. 415 was produced following sequential in vivo passage of a B cell tumour arising in mouse EuLMP1.
six ME, even at large doses, didn’t exhibit any impact about the
6 ME, even at high doses, didn’t exhibit any effect to the Matrigel assay. Migration is usually a significant angiogenic response of ECs allowing them to reach the membrane breach for invasion towards the extracel lular space. VEGF can be a prime regulator of EC migration. VEGF induced phosphorylation of Tyr1214 of VEGFR2 activates SAPK2 p38 resulting in VEGF induced actin reorganization and migration of ECs by means of phosphorylation of heat shock protein 27 and LIM kinase one, 6 ME did not exhibit any inhibitory impact on VEGF induced migration of ECs and did not inhibit phosphorylation of p38 by the VEGF VEGFR2 complicated. It appeared, thus, that the principal target of 6 ME was EC proliferation. Interestingly, six ME inhibited each VEGF and FGF2 induced EC proliferation.
In people, on selleck chemical VEGF A binding, phosphorylation of VEGFR2 on Tyr1175 leads to recruitment of PLC, which in flip, by way of activation of PKC, phosphorylates MEK1 2 and eventually mitogen activated protein kinase extracellular signal regulated kinase one 2 lead ing to proliferation of ECs, Such activation of MAPKs by VEGF is various from traditional Ras Raf MEK MAPK pathway, which can be made use of by most receptor tyrosine kinases which includes FGF2, However, it’s been proven that PKC dependent activation of MEK1 two requires a Ras Raf complex formation, This PKC Ras Raf func tional interaction is not really so properly understood and could consist of other hitherto unidentified components. PKC and Ras Raf will be the factors exactly where the VEGF and FGF2 cascades arrive just ahead of the 1st downstream common effector, MEK1 two, as far as activation of MAPK is con cerned. The obtaining that six ME inhibits each the VEGF and FGF2 induced EC proliferation at the same time as MEK1 2 phosphorylation suggests that the PKC Ras Raf inter action may be the only level exactly where 6 ME could target each pathways with a single action.
Otherwise, six ME would have to have two actions targeting two unique elements upstream to MEK1 two, one particular for each pathway. This can be a level that involves long term consideration. Therefore, inhibition of MEK1 2 and consequently ERK1 two phophorylation was the sole cardinal result of 6 ME about the signaling cascade of VEGF in HUVECs. activation of AKT and P38 were unaffected. This mechanism is strik ingly diverse compared for the results buy erismodegib in the flavonoid luteolin on VEGF signaling in HUVECs, Luteolin, inhibited the PI3K AKT pathway abolishing downstream survival signals, but additionally enhanced the professional apoptotic MKK3 MKK6 p38 pathway of VEGF eliciting a powerful apoptotic impact in ECs. Pertaining to the anti mitotic activ ity, luteolin inhibited VEGF induced phosphorylation of p70 S6K, a downstream effector of PI3K accountable for G1 progression.
To additional discover the involvement of Rac1 activation during
To further check out the involvement of Rac1 activation while in the transforming capability of HRASG12V in Caco 2 cells, pharmacological inhibition of Rac1 was established applying the selective inhibitor NSC23766, Inhibition of Rac1 not simply managed to suppress Rac1 activation but in addition to abolish cell migra tion and invasion properties inside a dose dependent man ner, indicating the crucial role of Rac1 kinase inhibitorVX-765 in EMT cell properties of Caco H cells. TGFb 1 co operates with BRAFV600E find more info and KRASG12V oncogenes to supply Caco 2 cells with enhanced transformation properties Because BRAFV600E and KRASG12V oncogenes didn’t man age to fully transform Caco 2 cells nor induced an EMT phenotype, as HRASG12V did, it was additional investigated whether co operation of oncogene development factor can make synergistic result. The previously established oncogenic models of BRAFV600E and KRASG12V along with the parental Caco 2 cells were treated with Trans forming Growth Issue beta 1 for 14 days.
Staining with phalloidin exposed significant morphologi cal changes in TGFb one taken care of Caco K15 cells that weren’t observed in Caco 2 cells following treatment method with TGFb 1, whereas no morphological modifications had been recorded in TGFb 1 treated Caco BR13 cells, Protein analysis for E cadherin, in fractionized soluble and insoluble extracts indicated a reduction of E cadherin inside the inso luble fraction in Caco 2 and Caco K15 cells to a better lengthen, Interestingly, though amounts of E cadherin weren’t altered in Caco BR13 cells, confocal images clearly presented disrupted cell cell contacts and discontinuous staining which weakens cell junctions permitting cell migration, Altered localization of E cad herin is surely an vital mechanism contributing to cell metastasis, TGFb one was also investigated for its prospective effect on cell migration and invasion.
Considering the fact that combined MEK and PI3K inhibition slowed
Since mixed MEK and PI3K inhibition slowed mutant Kras driven lung tumor growth in vivo, we established no matter whether selective inhibition of MEK and PI3K affected macrophage stimu lated proliferation in these Kras mutant lung tumor cell lines. Selective inhibition of either MEK or PI3K appreciably decreased basal prolif eration, and blocked growth stimulated by macrophage co culture to different extents in LM2 and JF32 cells, Only the mixed inhibition of both kinases ablated the stimulatory impact of macrophage co culture on neoplastic proliferation, Kinase inhibitors were applied at concentrations reported to get cytostatic and never cyto toxic, and none of these treatment options signifi cantly enhanced LM2 or JF32 cell death, These results propose that both the MEK and PI3K pathways need to be blocked to correctly inhibit macrophage stimulated neoplastic growth.
Macrophage conditioned media contains 3 ten kDa elements IGF 1 can be responsible to the M CM sti mulated neoplastic proliferation. Macrophage conditioned media IGF one ranges correlate to results on neoplastic proliferation IGF one has a properly established position from the metastasis of cancer selleck chemicals cells in vivo, as well as stimulating development in vitro, and alveolar macrophages generate substantial levels which stimulate neoplastic proliferation Macrophages generate various cytokines, eicosanoids together with other soluble variables depending upon tissue place and environmental stimuli, any quantity of which could possibly be responsible for the observed neoplastic growth stimulation described over. Media conditioned by pri mary BAL macrophages stimulated the prolif eration of LM2 cells, albeit to a lesser extent than key macrophage co culture, When dimension fractionated M CM was added to LM2 cells, molecules among 3 and 10 kDa stimu lated LM2 development to the biggest extent, As a result, elements of this size mediated nearly all M CM effects on LM2 growth.
Alveolar macrophages generate a lot of growth aspects in this dimension assortment, together with IGF one, GM CSF and EGF, To additional narrow down the list of achievable candidates, an in silico analysis read the article was performed for every fraction size as described in Components and Techniques. The resulting information factors were separately match for every fraction dimension to your general equation y y0 a as described, with regression r2 0. 997, 0. 842 and 0. 918 to the three, ten and thirty kDa fractions, respectively. From regression analysis, the responsible issue appeared to get 7. 23 ten. eight kDa in size, suggesting that development variables this kind of as of IGF one in response to quartz dust induced lung damage, When alveolar macrophages are an essential com ponent in the persistent inflammatory milieu responsible for advertising lung tumorigenesis, IGF 1 hasn’t been examined like a doable connection amongst macrophage recruitment and lung cancer progression.
Discussion The skill of OPN to induce phosphorylation and acti va
Discussion The ability of OPN to induce phosphorylation and acti vation of Erk1 2 represents a novel and crucial sig naling mechanism in prostate cancer progression. Right here we’ve identified the elevated expression of OPN leads towards the activation with the Erk1 2, Lack of OPN mediated activation of JNK and p 38 proteins demonstrates that OPN won’t stimulate the signaling pathways linked with these proteins. Signaling path way evaluation has exposed that Erk1 two could be activated by a number of upstream kinases and that every occasion is dependent within the certain ligand and cell kind utilized, The Raf MEK ERK cascade is acknowledged to get criti cally important from the regulation and growth of the variety of cells, Earlier scientific studies have shown that inhibi tion of MEK1 2 resulted within the inhibition of Erk1 two acti vation, MEK1 two was shown for being activated on OPN over expression and, as a result of established role of MEK in Erk activation, we propose that this seems for being a significant intermediary phase in OPN induced Erk1 2 activation, On the Raf family members of professional teins, increase from the phosphorylation of c Raf at 338 signify an increase inside the activation of this protein within the PC3 OPN cell line as in contrast that has a Raf and B Raf.
It looks that these proteins will not possess a notable part in OPN mediated Erk1 2 signaling. To more elucidate OPN signaling, we investigated the role of Akt in OPN mediated Erk1 two activation. It has been proven that Akt plays an inhibitory position in the two Erk1 two and c Raf activation through the phosphor ylation of c Raf at ser259, which facilitates the binding of 14 three 3 proteins, We observed the activation of Akt LDE225 956697-53-3 by OPN ends in the phosphorylation of c Raf259, which inhibits c Raf action and in addition decreases Erk1 two activation, PC3 OPN cells handled with Akt inhibitor reveal a rise in the activation of Erk1 two and c Raf338 suggesting that Akt is acting being a damaging regulator of Erk1 2 activation, Collectively, our outcomes indicate that OPN has dual effects from the anti apoptotic pathway.
Osteopontin activates c Raf and Erk1 2, dig this when additionally, it acts to inhibit c Raf and Erk1 two activation through Akt pathway. While large ranges of lively Akt are existing in PC3 cells inside the absence of OPN in excess of expression, we select the PC3 cell line as being a model method since they con tain the cell surface receptors CD44 and aVb3 integrins. We regarded that this is often the very best model method to investigate the signaling interactions among OPN and every single of those two surface receptors. The use of the cyclo RGD molecular inhibitor of avb3 and SiRNA to CD44 in PC3 cell lines in mixture with the use untreated PC3 cell lines OPN in figure four indi cate that OPN can stimulate Akt activity by way of either avb3 or CD44 receptors, Upon mutation of your RGDRGA region, OPN still retains the means to induce Akt activation presumably due to its interaction with CD44.