These improvements in J-V characteristics are further validated by the incident photon conversion efficiency (IPCE) measurements shown in Figure 3c. It is clear from the IPCE plot (Figure 3c) that both graphene and SiO2/G layers improve the photon to electron conversion ratio considerably compared to the bare planar Si solar cell. The decrease in the reflectance (∆R) of graphene-deposited Si (Figure 6a) is about 4 to

5% in the wavelength range of interest for Si solar cell. But, the increase in IPCE (∆I) is much larger than the decrease in reflectance LBH589 (∆R) as one goes from Si to G/Si structure. This confirms that the electric field formed at the G/n-Si interface is aiding carrier collection. Thus, the deposition of graphene onto polished n-Si surface is aiding carrier collection or photon absorption in addition to lowering its reflectance. A slight increase in V OC from 573 to 582 mV also

indicates the active participation of graphene in the solar cell device. Earlier, a number of studies have reported the effect of graphene quality, number of graphene layers, and adsorbed molecules on the electronic properties of graphene-Si INCB024360 cell line interface. Li et al. reported that the incorporation of graphene introduced a built-in electric field near the interface between the graphene and silicon (n-type) to help in the collection of photo-generated carriers [21]. Attention may also be paid to the study on the effect of the number of graphene layers and chemical doping on the properties of the graphene-Si interface [22, 25, 46]. Further, on deposition of SiO2 (on going from G/Si to SiO2/G/Si cell), the increase in IPCE is much smaller than the decrease in the reflectance value (Figure 6b). This clearly indicates that the main effect on SiO2 deposition is due to improvement in the antireflection next properties only. The improvement in the J SC on SiO2 deposition (on going from G/Si to SiO2/G/Si cell) is primarily due to the antireflection properties of the 100-nm-thick SiO2 layer.

Consequently, the large improvement in J SC and small increase in V OC indicate that graphene behaves like an n + layer which intrudes a surface field at the interface to enhance the collection of light-generated carriers thereby improving the efficiency of the p-n Si solar cell. Further, a decrease in the series resistance value and a small increase in V OC on deposition of SiO2 layer on the G/Si cell are due to modification in the electronic properties of the G-Si interface during SiO2 deposition process. By modifying the electronic properties of graphene layer, the photovoltaic properties of silicon solar cell can be improved further. Figure 6 Comparison of reflectance and IPCE of solar cells. A decrease in the reflectance (∆R) and an increase in the IPCE (∆I) on going from Si to G/Si (a) and G/Si to SiO2/G/Si (b) solar cells.

Finally,

to investigate the optical contribution of PSi devices in CH5424802 cost the fluorescence response, we compared the fluorescence emission of Rh-UTES derivative in liquid (ACN) and immobilized on PSi structures. We observed a 277-fold fluorescence increase in the case of PSi/Rh-UTES nanostructure, and it is important to keep in mind that the derivative concentration in the solid device is three orders of magnitude lower than in the solution (1.4058 ± 0.35 nmol cm-2 compared with 1.16 μM). Therefore, these results highlight the benefits of use PSi optical device as support of the organic receptor. Figure 9 Emission spectra of PSiMc devices ( λ exc   = 490 nm) before and after chemical functionalization and metal device recognition. (a) Thermally oxidized sample, (b) PSiMc/Rh-UTES sensor (derivative (3) concentration = 1.16 μM),

and (c and d) PSiMc/Rh-UTES-Hg2+ complexes (3.45 and 6.95 μM respectively). Figure 10 shows a proposed mechanism of the coordination mode of Hg2+ ions. Several proposed binding modes have been reported on which oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen atoms have provided higher affinity toward Hg2+ [11]. In our study and as the FTIR spectra have showed, two carbonyl oxygen atoms as well as the amide oxygen can provide a binding pocket for Hg2+. To confirm the proposed mechanism, further studies need to be completed (X-ray diffraction).An analysis using fluorescence microscopy was also carried out to characterize the emission intensity over the entire Lenvatinib concentration surface of the hybrid sensor. The samples were excited using a mercury lamp with 510 to 560-nm filter in a Nikon Optiphot-2 (G2-A) microscope coupled with 3CCD MTI 8-bit camera. The emission intensities are shown in the Figure 11. The image in the Figure 11a is presenting a real view of the PSiMc/Rh-UTES hybrid sensor and its corresponding

tridimensional fluorescence profile over the entire surface, on which we can see the emission intensity produced for the immobilized Rh-UTES derivative. After metal sensor exposure, the hybrid sensor showed a strong brilliant red light (Figure 11b), and the fluorescence enhancement was 0.22-fold (integrated emission). This value coincided well with the fluorescent enhancement observed on the fluorescent spectroscopy analysis (0.25-fold tuclazepam for the same metal concentration). Figure 10 Proposed mechanism of the coordination mode of Hg 2+ ions. Figure 11 Fluorescence emission of PSiMc sensor and its tridimensional profile before and after metal detection. (a) PSiMc/Rh-UTES (Rh-UTES = 1.16 μM) and (b) PSiMc/Rh-UTES-Hg2+ (Hg2+ = 6.95 μM). Conclusions In this work we have proposed a novel method for detection of Hg2+ ions using rhodamine fluorescent derivative as the recognizing element. We studied the fluorescent performance of the derivative receptor in liquid and solid phases.

JPG is the recipient of a Murdoch University Postgraduate Scholarship. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Figure S1. ClustalW alignment of S. nodorum (A) Gba1 and (B) GgaA with fungal orthologues. Figure S2. (A) Agarose gel electrophoresis of PCR products arising from the amplification of the (A) GgaA locus of the created S. nodorum mutants. Targeted Insertion of the phleomycin cassette in place of the S. nodorum GgaA gene results in a 4196 bp

amplicon (Lanes 25, 26, 30, 31) , replacing the 1789 bp amplicon of the wild type (WT) SN15. MW, Molecular weight marker; WT, S. nodorum SN15 gDNA; NTC, no template PCR control; the remaining lanes labeled by mutant culture number. Lanes 1, 2, 11, 20, 32, 34, no observed amplification or (B) Gba1 locus of strains transformed with the Gba1 homologous

disruption construct. A compound screening assay band of 6.1 kb represents the wildtype locus and 7.6 kb the locus having undergone homologous recombination with the disruption construct. Lane 1, 1 kb ladder; Lane 2, S. nodorum SN15 (wildtype); Lanes 3–8, a representative selection of transformants. Strains represented in lanes 4, 6 and 7 have all undergone homologous recombination and represent Gba1 mutants. Figure S3. Light microscopy of the asexual spores of S. nodorum, harvested from the wild-type SN15 and mutant strains gna1-35, gba1-6 and ggaA-25. (PDF 20 Autophagy Compound Library MB) Additional file 2: Table S1. Sequences of primers used in this study. (DOCX 79 KB) References 1. Solomon PS, Lowe RGT, Tan KC, Waters ODC, Oliver RP: Stagonospora nodorum : cause of stagonospora nodorum blotch of wheat. Mol Plant Pathol 2006, 7:147–156.PubMedCrossRef 2. Oliver RP, Solomon PS: New developments in Cobimetinib pathogenicity and virulence of necrotrophs. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2010, 13:415–419.PubMedCrossRef

3. Douaiher MN, Halama P, Janex-Favre MC: The ontogeny of stagonospora nodorum pycnidia in culture. Sydowia 2004, 56:39–50. 4. Bahn YS, Xue C, Idnurm A, Rutherford JC, Heitman J, Cardenas ME: Sensing the environment: lessons from fungi. Nat Rev Microbiol 2007, 5:57–69.PubMedCrossRef 5. Turner GE, Borkovich KA: Identification of a G protein α subunit from neurospora crassa that is a member of the G(i) family. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:14805–14811.PubMed 6. Krystofova S, Borkovich KA: The heterotrimeric G-protein subunits GNG-1 and GNB-1 form a GƔβ dimer required for normal female fertility, asexual development, and Gα protein levels in neurospora crassa. Eukaryot Cell 2005, 4:365–378.PubMedCrossRef 7. Doehlemann G, Berndt P, Hahn M: Different signalling pathways involving a Gα protein, cAMP and a MAP kinase control germination of Botrytis cinerea conidia. Mol Microbiol 2006, 59:821–835.PubMedCrossRef 8. Liu S, Dean RA: G protein subunit genes control growth, development, and pathogenicity of magnaporthe grisea . Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 1997, 10:1075–1086.PubMedCrossRef 9.

Identification and testing of bacterial adhesins able to bind GAGs To identify the bacterial

proteins involved in the interaction between L. salivarius Lv72 and eukaryotic GAGs, the proteins of the bacterial envelope were solubilised and subjected to affinity chromatography, using heparin as the ligand. The fractions eluting at concentrations higher than 0.8 M NaCl were tested for their ability to interfere with the HeLa – L. salivarius binding. Those showing high activity were subjected to anion exchange chromatography. One of the fractions recovered showed a high interfering activity while presenting just one conspicuous protein band upon SDS-PAGE analysis (Figure 4). This protein was identified by MALDI-TOF (MS) analysis as a soluble binding protein of an ABC transport system due to its homology with the protein OppA GW 572016 of Lactobacillus salivarius UCC118 (GI/90962668) (9 queries

matched, 10% sequence coverage). The gene encoding for L. salivarius Lv72 OppA was cloned Small Molecule Compound Library in E. coli, overexpressed and purified by passage through a heparin affinity column. The purified protein was used in interference adhesion assays (Figure 5). The results obtained show that OppA significantly interferes with the attachment of L. salivarius Lv72 to HeLa cultures in a dose dependent way, thus confirming its role as an adhesin in the interaction between both cellular types. Figure 4 Surface proteins of Lactobacillus salivarius Lv72 separated by means of heparin-affinity chromatography (A, C, E) and ionic interchange

chromatograpy (B, D, F). A,B) Chromatograms. The mark shows the fractions of interest that were tested further. C,D) Adherence interference experiments: inhibitory effect of the fractions on Lv72 binding to HeLa cells. E,F) SDS-PAGE of the isolated fractions. n=6 ANOVA test **, p-value < 0.001. Figure 5 Inhibition of L. salivarius Lv72 attachment to HeLa cells by different concentrations of purified OppA. Lv72 was co-incubated in IKBKE the presence of OppA (■) or bovine serum albumin (used as a negative control) (grey sqaure). n=5 ANOVA test *, p-value < 0.05. Discussion PGs are ubiquitous, being present in all cell types and in the ECM. The enormous structural diversity of their GAG chains and core proteins mediates specific interactions between many molecules. Because of these characteristics, they play an essential role in the interaction between cells. In addition, these molecules present properties which suggest that they might be part of the receptors that allow the attachment of the normal microbiota to the mucous epithelia that line the digestive tract and the vagina. In fact, many pathogenic microorganisms use these molecules as specific receptors and in bacterial internalization during the infective process [39, 40].

It is interesting to note that the Clostridia clade harbors cosmopolitan families, such as Peptococcaceae, and environment-specific ones such as Lachnospiraceae or Oscillospiraceae. This indicates that phylogenetically close families can show strikingly different environmental preferences and distribution

patterns, which at least for some cases, questions the validity of the proposed relationship between phylogenetic distance and environmental preferences [26, 27]. Taxonomic distributions can be used to explore the characteristics of the environments themselves. Grouping environments according to similarity in their taxonomic profiles can help us to understand the main environmental features at play in selecting prokaryotic diversity. To assess the relationship between environments CT99021 and taxa, see more we clustered the different environmental types according to the affinities of their different taxa (Figure 3). Figure 3 Relations between environments, and between environments and taxonomic families. Heat-map of the posterior medians of the affinities and the resulting dendrogram

from the cluster analysis of the environment types, using log-affinities and euclidean distance. Purple and orange cells represent low and high affinity values, respectively. The environments are separated into five different groups. The first one is associated with animal tissues (oral, gut, vagina, other human tissues, samples from animal tissues and aerial specimens, the last mostly coming from air expired from human subjects). These habitats clearly differ from the rest, and some of the prokaryotes all living there do not thrive in other locations [28]. Thus, host association with animals emerges as the first discriminating factor in the composition of the prokaryotic assemblages. The second group to segregate is composed of thermal environments (geo- and hydrothermal), and also shows a clearly distinct taxonomic

profile. Both environments are separated by long distances in the dendrogram, which indicates significant differences between them. The absence of oxygen and light in hydrothermal locations accounts for the presence of some anaerobic methanogenic archaea in hydrothermal, but not geothermal sources, or for some photosynthetic cyanobacterial families that are located only in geothermal spots where light is present. The third group comprises saline environments, and is represented mainly by heterogeneous marine samples which show quite similar profiles. Athalassohaline waters of saline inland lakes (including soda lakes, with a mineral composition different from marine waters) also cluster within this group, showing that salinity as a whole, and not salt composition, is the determinant ecological factor. This is related to osmotic adaptations of the organisms. The fourth group contains terrestrial samples from soil and plants.

4 kbp, which represents approximately 1X of the P. syringae pv. phaseolicola NPS3121 genome. This microarray contains also several PCR products corresponding to various genes with known functions that were printed as controls [67]. To perform this study, we used this P. syringae pv. phaseolicola NPS3121 DNA microarray. Each microarray experiment was repeated six times: two technical replicates with the same RNA samples and three biological replicates using RNA isolated from a different culture. cDNA synthesis, labeling, hybridization, washing, and chip scanning were performed at the Microarray Core Facility at CINVESTAV-LANGEBIO.

Hybridized microarray slides were scanned (GenePix Ixazomib in vivo 4000, Axon Instruments, Inc) at a 10-μm resolution, adjusting the laser and gain parameters to obtain similar levels of fluorescence intensity in both channels. The spot intensities were quantified using Axon GenePrix Pro 6.0 image analysis software. First, an automatic spot finding and quantification option of the software was used. Subsequently, all spots were inspected

individually and in some cases, the spot diameters were corrected or the spots were removed from the analyses. The mean of the signals and the median of backgrounds were used for further analyses. this website Raw data were imported into the R.2.2.1 software. Background signals were subtracted using Robust Multichip Analysis (RMA) whereas the normalization of the signal intensities within slides was carried out using “print-tip loess” method and the LIMMA package. Normalized data were log2 transformed and fitted into mixed model ANOVAs using the mixed procedure. eltoprazine The p-values of the low temperature (18°C) effect were adjusted using the False Discovery Rate method (FDR). Differentially expressed genes were identified using cut-off criteria of ≥1.5 for up-regulated and ≤0.6 for down-regulated genes (FDR,

p-value ≤ 0.05). Analyses of distribution and the location of differentially expressed genes in the P. syringae pv. phaseolicola 1448A sequenced genome were performed using the GenoMap software [68]. Microarray validation by reverse transcription-PCR analyses To validate the microarray data, we performed reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analyses. The expression levels of several genes with different biological functions were evaluated by this technique. These experiments involved independent biological experiments from those used for microarray analyses. DNA-free RNA was obtained as described above and the integrity of the RNA was evaluated by agarose gel electrophoresis. Total RNA (200 ng) was used for RT-PCR using the Superscript one-step kit (Invitrogen).

subtilis, where it has been proposed to play a role similar to that of the E. coli MinE topological specificity component of the MinCDE division site selection system [33, 34]. A divIVA gene is also present in Streptomyces coelicolor [35] and in other actinomycetes, like Mycobacterium tuberculosis,

where Wag31 (antigen 84), a protein proposed to be involved in cell shape maintenance [36]. While many gram-positive bacteria may contain divIVA gene but lack minE and even the full BIBW2992 chemical structure minCDE system, many gram-negative bacteria have minE but no divIV. FtsE, in association with the integral membrane protein FtsX, is involved in the assembly of potassium ion transport proteins, both of which being relevant to Ensartinib mouse the tubercle bacillus. Recently FtsE and FtsX have been found to localize to the septal ring in E. coli, with the localization requiring the cell division proteins FtsZ, FtsA, and ZipA but not FtsK, FtsQ, FtsL, and FtsI proteins [37], suggestive of a role for FtsEX in cell division. Thus, since FtsE of the FtsEX complex shares sequence conservation with ABC type transporter proteins, the complex could be involved in the transport or translocation processes involving drugs, ions, solutes, proteins, peptides or polysaccharides in relation to drug resistance, salt

tolerance, cell division or membrane protein insertion. Transcriptional regulators In total, There are 15 transcriptional regulators identified as cell wall related proteins in this work, among which include two ArsR-family proteins, three TetR family proteins and two two-component transcriptional regulatory proteins (detailed information given in Additional file 3). Two-component systems are major elements in bacterial adaptation to environmental changes. These systems are implicated in a large variety of adaptive responses, such as quorum sensing, chemotaxis

and metabolic changes. In many pathogenic bacteria, two-component systems are central regulatory elements for the production of virulence factors [38, 39]. In this study two www.selleck.co.jp/products/Fludarabine(Fludara).html two-component transcriptional regulatory proteins, PrrA and DevR were identified in the cell wall proportion. The prrA gene, encoding the regulator of the two-component system PrrA-PrrB, has been shown to be induced upon macrophage phagocytosis and to be transiently required for the early stages of macrophage infection for M. tuberculosis[40]. Adaptation to oxygen limitation is likely to constitute a key step in mycobacterial persistence and dormancy and could well be mediated by a two-component system and it is suggested that DevR-DevS might serve as a regulatory link between hypoxia and establishment and/or maintenance of the appropriate response [41].

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Widelitz R: Wnt signaling through canonical and non-canonical pathways: recent progress. Growth Factors 2005, 23: 111–116.PubMedCrossRef 31. Zi X, Guo Y, Simoneau AR, Hope C, Xie J, Holcombe RF, Hoang BH: Expression of Frzb/secreted Frizzled-related protein 3, a secreted Wnt antagonist, in human androgen-independent prostate cancer PC-3 cells suppresses tumor growth and cellular invasiveness. Cancer Res 2005, 65: 9762–9770.PubMedCrossRef 32. Wu B, Crampton Selleck RAD001 SP, Hughes CC: Wnt signaling induces

matrix metalloproteinase expression and regulates T cell transmigration. Immunity 2007, 26: 227–239.PubMedCrossRef 33. Roelle S, Grosse R, Aigner A, Krell HW, Czubayko F, Gudermann T: Matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 mediate epidermal growth factor receptor transactivation by gonadotropin-releasing hormone. J Biol Chem 2003, 278: 47307–47318.PubMedCrossRef 34. Kanayama H: Matrix metalloproteinases and bladder cancer. J Med Invest 2001, 48: 31–43.PubMed 35. Gerhards S, Jung K, Koenig F, Daniltchenko D, Hauptmann S, Schnorr D, Loening SA: Excretion of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in urine is associated with a high stage and grade of bladder carcinoma. Urology 2001, 57: 675–679.PubMedCrossRef 36. Moses MA, Wiederschain D, Loughlin KR, Zurakowski D, Lamb CC, Freeman MR: Increased incidence of matrix metalloproteinases in urine of cancer patients. Cancer Res 1998, 58: 1395–1399.PubMed 37. Papathoma AS, Petraki C, Grigorakis A, Papakonstantinou H, Karavana V, Stefanakis S, Sotsiou F, Pintzas A: Prognostic significance of matrix

metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in bladder cancer. Anticancer Res 2000, 20: 2009–2013.PubMed 38. Yagi H, Yotsumoto F, Miyamoto S: Heparin-binding ASK1 epidermal growth factor-like growth factor promotes transcoelomic metastasis in ovarian cancer through epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Mol Cancer Ther 2008, 7: 3441.PubMedCrossRef 39. Li F, Chong ZZ, Maiese K: Winding through the WNT pathway during cellular development and demise. Histol Histopathol 2006, 21: 103–124.PubMed 40. Wu X, Obata T, Khan Q, Highshaw RA, DeVere White R, Sweeney C: The phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase pathway regulates bladder cancer cell invasion. BJU Int 2004, 93: 143–50.PubMedCrossRef 41. Cheng JQ, Lindsley CW, Cheng GZ, Yang H, Nicosia SV: The Akt/PKB pathway: molecular target for cancer drug discovery. Oncogene 2005, 24: 7482–7492.PubMedCrossRef 42. Wang QM, Fiol CJ, DePaoli-Roach AA, Roach PJ: Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta is a dual specificity kinase differentially regulated by tyrosine and serine/threonine phosphorylation. J Biol Chem 1994, 269: 14566–14574.PubMed 43.

920 Å and angle of approximately 89.56°. In summary, through the rhombohedral distortion, the Ru nn-distance does change very little (approximately 0.003 Å) from its bulk value of 3.923 Å by reducing the Ru-Ru-Ru angle γ from 90° to only approximately 0.44°. Another point is that the ‘Ru cube’ could hold ions larger than the Sr ion at its center since Ru is larger than Ti. (SrTiO3 is cubic. The ‘Ti cube’ has a lattice constant of 3.905 Å.) Thus, the bulk SRO structure was made by decreasing the inner hollow space of the cube by having a buckling angle and thus has an orthorhombic structure. In

the SRO111 film, the Ru cube changed to a rhombohedron and its inner hollow volume is closer to the optimum value to have the Sr ion at click here its center which is a little bit Pexidartinib nmr smaller to fill the inner space of the undistorted Ru cube having a lattice constant of approximately 3.923 Åc. When the SRO film is grown with different strain directions, there are three categories that we might consider as key parameters: (1) Ru-O distance, (2) Ru-O-Ru

buckling angle, (3) Ru nn-distance. Previous reports have mainly focused on Ru-O distance and Ru-O-Ru buckling angle, which are in the scheme of the tolerance factor. However, the tolerance factor mostly covers cubic, tetragonal, and orthorhombic structures. In the SRO111 film, we could keep nearly the bulk SRO value of the Ru nn-distance more easily while the Ru nn-distance of the SRO100 film was quite reduced along the in-plane direction. The ability of keeping the Ru nn-distance closer to the bulk value seems to Inositol monophosphatase 1 be

one of the main factors to obtain higher RRR and T c in the SRO111 film compared to the SRO100 film. This scenario can be generalized to other cases. The smaller lattice mismatch in SRO/STO (110) compared to SRO/STO (001) means the a smaller disturbance to the original Ru nn-distance [7, 9]. With d 1-10 = 3.905 Å/√2 and d 110 = 3.905 Å/√2, the Ru nn-distance and Ru-Ru-Ru angle are approximately 3.928 Å and approximately 89.34° along the rhombus side and 3.905 Å and 90° along the rectangular side of SRO (110) film, repectively [7–9]. In summary, the major change of Ru nn-distance from the pseudocubic bulk SRO value of 3.923 Å is approximately -0.018 Å for the SRO (100) film, approximately -0.006 Å and approximately -0.017 Å for the SRO (110) film, and approximately -0.003 Å for the SRO (111) film. Thus, the nearest neighbor distance between B-site ions seems to be as good as the tolerance factor in perovskite thin films and even better if the strain pushes lower symmetry like in rhombohedral structures. Conclusions We made high-quality SrRuO3 thin films on SrTiO3 (111) and SrTiO3 (001) substrates with atomically flat surfaces.

Prior to introduction of the precursor gas, hydrogen plasma was created for 5 min in order to remove possible contamination and gallium oxide layer from the substrate. Silane (SiH4) was used as Si source. Gas flow rates, RF power, chamber pressure and deposition duration were process variables that have been investigated in detail and

will be reported selleck products elsewhere. Fabrication of bistable memory device For the fabrication of a bistable memory device, glass substrate was used. Al contacts were deposited by thermal evaporation. Two silicon nitride (Si3N4) dielectric layers of 20 nm each were deposited in a PECVD system, sandwiching SiNWs between the bottom and top electrodes. SiNWs were grown for 30 min from 100-nm Ga catalyst layer

at 400°C. After the Si3N4/SiNW/Si3N4/Al/glass structure was fabricated, the second layer of Al contacts was evaporated to finalise the device. The device characteristics were tested buy XL765 by I-V and data retention time measurements. Fabrication of Schottky diode SiNW-based Schottky diodes were fabricated by growing the SiNWs directly on glass substrate from 50 nm Ga at 400°C for 20 min with subsequent evaporation of both Al contacts on top of the nano-wires. The device characteristics were tested via I-V measurements. Fabrication of solar cells During solar cell fabrication, a glass substrate covered with transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer (the details of the layer will be reported elsewhere) was utilised. SiNWs were grown on top of this layer from 50 nm Ga at 400°C for 40 min. Nano-wires for the solar pentoxifylline cell were grown using additional phosphine in the reaction chamber for n-type doping

of the nano-wires. After the nano-wire growth Al dots were evaporated for top contact. Results and discussion Low-temperature growth of silicon nano-wires As mentioned in the ‘Methods’ section, SiNWs were grown from various thicknesses of Ga catalyst layer at various temperatures. An interesting connection between the thickness of Ga and growth temperature was observed. As it will be demonstrated in this study, the thickness of the catalyst layer is crucial when choosing the growth temperature. SEM images of SiNWs grown at 400°C from Ga layers of 100-, 40- and 7.5-nm thicknesses are shown in Figure 1. It is noticeable that at this temperature, the growth takes place only for thicker catalyst layers, whereas there are no nano-wires observed on the 7.5-nm thick layer (Figure 1c). Figure 1 SiNWs grown at 400°C. (a) 100, (b) 40 and (c) 7.5 nm Ga catalyst layers. The closer look at the nano-wires grown from 100-nm Ga layer (Figure 2) reveals that the growth takes place through the catalyst-at-the-top route, and the nano-wires have tree-like structures with large diameter core and thin wires grown perpendicularly from the core. Figure 2 High-magnification image of the SiNWs grown at 400°C from 100 nm Ga.