All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Introduction Exercise MM-102 capacity is generally considered as the greatest amount of physical exertion that VX-680 order can be sustained at a given level of intensity. Success in endurance sports is related to an ability to continue with relatively high efforts for extended periods of time. In contrast, most team sports involve intermittent bouts of high intensity exertion with limited recovery intervals. A number of strategies are commonly utilized to increase exercise capacity as a means of enhancing sport performance. These include various approaches to training and conditioning as well as nutritional strategies to improve peak exercise capacity

as well as exercise efficiency. While numerous factors underlie exercise capacity, a primary consideration is that of energy demand versus energy supply. The intensity of exercise corresponds- to a great degree- to the specific energy demands of the activity. The capacity to perform at a given intensity of effort is limited by the localized energy supplies and the ability to replenish those energy stores as exercise continues. In conjunction with the increased click here metabolic demand for energy during exercise, there is

increased blood flow to the exercising muscles [1]. During exercise, the vasculature system is the sole means to deliver energy replenishment as well as to remove metabolites that may limit ongoing efforts. A close pairing of exercise intensity and local blood flow suggests that potential strategies capable of increasing blood flow to exercising muscles may enhance maximal work capacity and/or increase resistance to localized muscle fatigue during ongoing exercise at submaximal intensities.

MRIP The process of increasing blood flow to exercising musculature involves shunting of blood from non-active tissues to working muscle. As physical exercise increases in intensity, there are a number of mechanisms involved in the vasodilation of the arterioles and the pre-capillary sphincters [2]. These vasodilatory mechanisms are diverse but share two distinct characteristics in that the activity of each of the differing mechanisms increases in direct response to increasing intensities of exercise and those mechanisms all initiate the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide is the endothelial factor responsible for relaxation of smooth musculature surrounding the arterials and the pre-capillary sphincters thereby producing vasodilation and increased blood flow into the capillary bed of the exercising muscle tissue. Since its identification approximately twenty years ago, various research studies and subsequent sports nutrition products have emerged in an effort to manipulate levels of NO in order to enhance exercise performance. This quest has resulted in a sizable nutritional supplement market, primarily composed of arginine based products.

3, the triplicates were compared and if a clear outlier was present (ΔCt > 0.3 from other two replicates), the outlier well was excluded from analysis. Amplification profiles of the seven conditions tested were annotated and presented in Figure2A-B and Additional file 4: Figure S 4A-E. Results from laboratory quantitative validation using all conditions tested were summarized PD0332991 concentration in Table4. Detailed results of inter- and intra-run

coefficient of variation for Ct value and copy number were presented for all conditions tested in Figure3 and Additional file 5: Supplemental file 1A-C using scattered plots generated with the vegan package in R [18, 19]. Figure 2 A-B. Standard curve amplification profiles of the BactQuant assay generated from 10 μl and 5 μl reactions using seven ten-fold dilutions and normalized plasmid standards at 10 9 copies/μl. The Ct value of standard curve using 5 μl reaction volumes (Figure2B) shows an approximately 1 Ct left shift from the 10 μl reaction volumes LDC000067 clinical trial (Figure2A). However, the overall amplification profiles are not significantly different between the different reaction volumes over the assay dynamic range of 102 Selleck CBL0137 copies to 108 copies of 16 S rRNA gene per reaction. Table 4 Laboratory quantitative validation results of the BactQuant assay performed using pure plasmid standards and different mixed templates Templates used Assay dynamic range Average

reaction efficiency (SD) r 2 –value Plasmid standards–only (10 μl Rxn) 100–108 copies 102% (2%) >0.999 Plasmid standards-only (5 μl Rxn) 100 – 108 copies 95% (1%) >0.999 Plasmid standards plus 0.5 ng human gDNA 100 – 108 copies 99% (4%) >0.994 Plasmid standards plus 1 ng human gDNA 100 – 108 copies 101% (5%) >0.994 Sulfite dehydrogenase Plasmid standards plus 5 ng human gDNA 500 – 108 copies 96% (1%) >0.999 Plasmid standards plus 10 ng human gDNA 1000 – 108 copies 97% (2%) >0.999 Plasmid standards plus 0.5 ng  C. albicans gDNA 100 – 108 copies 97% (1%) >0.999

Figure 3 Inter- and intra-run coefficient of variation (CoV) for 10 μl and 5 μl reactions using seven ten-fold dilutions and normalized plasmid standards at 10 9 copies/μl calculated using data from multiple runs. The data is presented for both copy number ( solid line) and Ct value ( dashed line). As would be expected, the CoV is higher for copy number than for Ct value and is also higher for inter-run than for intra-run. The CoV for copy number for both reaction volumes was consistently below 15% until at 107 copies for 5 μl reactions. The CoV for Ct value was consistently below 5% for both reaction volumes. Bacteria-to-human ratio calculations Calculations were performed using the following copy number and genome size estimates: the average bacterial 16 S rRNA gene copy number per genome was estimated to be 3.94 copies as calculated by rrnDB [20] (accessed at http://​ribosome.​mmg.​msu.​edu/​rrndb/​index.​php) and the average human 18 S rRNA gene copy number per genome was estimated to be 400 copies [21].

4 50 20.7 27.8     Cold Cuts 29 19.6 27.6 20.6     Canned Tuna 22.5 23.5 6.9 9.9     Mean% 30.1 25 17.1 13.9   ns. No significance. SU eat less “low protein foods” and more “high protein foods” respect to NSU. Discussion Our major interest was to understand the frequency of common foods and how this consumption varies between SU and NSU in commercial gyms. Secondly, the study GSK461364 concentration focused upon the differences in consumption between the CC and SB of Palermo. Previous studies have shown discrepant rates of supplement intake amongst subjects that exercise in gyms

[15, 27]. These different findings might be explained by different gyms and people enrolled. Probably an under or over-reported use of such supplements, or an incorrect knowledge of what is considered a supplement check details may lead to such results [28, 29]. Proteins are the most widely consumed supplement selleck compound in commercial gyms [5, 6, 16], although association of protein

supplements and food consumption is a poorly researched field. It is to date unclear whether those more inclined to supplement also have healthier dietary patterns. The foods that constitute the “healthy” dietary pattern are rich in vitamins, minerals and fibers, which are considered protective against non-transmissible chronic diseases [30]. These dietary patterns usually include skimmed dairy products due to low fat content. In our study we tried to divide, at the best of our knowledge common foods, in three categories according to their protein content. Interestingly, even though no significant results occurred between our main comparison groups (CC

and SB), there were significant statistical differences between those users who took supplements and those who didn’t. Participants who took supplements also ate higher protein content foods in respect to those who did not. Another noteworthy observation is the frequency consumption of bakery goods and snacks. Consumption was relatively high in both groups but significantly higher in those who didn’t use protein supplements. The data presented despite not indicating the exact amount of food ingested during each day, provided some estimate of the protein intake (INRAN database). These preliminary results seem to indicate that the participants which regularly use protein supplements have a “healthier” dietary pattern [31]. However, it‘s still uncertain if the Aspartate total amount of proteins ingested is higher or lower than mean daily requirements. These results give knowledge to coaches and fitness professionals about the frequency and consumption of protein supplements. Secondly, estimation of quantity and quality of food intake of gym adepts of the city centre and the suburbs of Palermo, Italy. Conclusion The results show that in resistance trained men and female gym users, the percentage of those that consume proteins is 30% in the CC and 28.8% in the SB of Palermo, Italy. Generally participants who ingest protein supplements also eat higher protein content foods.

Low-frequency noise measurements on MSM device Measurement of low-frequency noise (resistance fluctuation) at room temperature

(300 K) was done using the ac Cisplatin chemical structure detection scheme [12] shown in Figure 3a. The ac bias V ac is used to measure the fluctuation, while the dc bias V dc was applied independently for tuning the device at a given point on the I − V curve [13–15]. The applied V dc lowers the contact resistance as well as the noise from the junction region. The separate control of the V ac and V dc is important because it decouples the biasing needed for sending current through the MSM device from the noise measurement. Our measurement allows us, even at a relatively high level of V dc, to maintain V ac at a low level such that . This makes the noise measurement process ohmic, and one can obtain the correct value of the relative fluctuations. The Acalabrutinib price noise spectra were taken in the window f min = 0.01 Hz to f max = 10 Hz. The normalized variance of resistance noise (mean square fluctuation) can be obtained as , where f min → f max is Selleck Lazertinib the bandwidth of measurements. For f > f max, background noise (mostly Nyquist noise) dominates, and for f < f min, long-term drifts interfere with the measurement because of long data acquisition time [15]. The magnitude as well as the PSD

shows a large dependence on the dc bias. Figure 3b shows the typical time series of resistance fluctuations for two representative dc bias voltages but with the same V ac. Figure 3 Noise detection scheme and time series of resistance Diflunisal fluctuations. (a) The schematic diagram of the ac noise detection

scheme with the application of dc bias. (b) The typical time series of resistance fluctuations for two representative dc bias voltages but with the same V ac. The noise data reported here were taken with the contact with larger barrier height (φ 1) forward biased. The dominant contribution to the contact noise as well as the contact resistance arises from this contact. On applying forward bias to this junction, the noise (as well as the contact resistance) is severely reduced. The other contact with much smaller barrier (φ 2) has much less contribution to the contact noise. Thus, even if it is reversed biased (and the depletion width increases due to the reverse bias), its contribution still remains low. Results and discussion The normalised PSD is shown in Figure 4 which is ∝ 1/f α . The data has been taken with varying dc bias. The superimposed dc bias reduces the magnitude of , and the change is approximately five orders of magnitude. The dc bias also changes the nature of frequency dependence. For V dc = 0, α≈2. However, α becomes approximately 1 for V dc ≥ 0.2 V, which is larger than the barrier heights.

N. europaea’s inability to produce siderophores

in Fe-replete or Fe-limited media was further confirmed by universal Chrome Azurol S assay [12]. N. europaea responds to iron limitation by elevating production of Fe3+-siderophore receptors normally repressed under iron-replete conditions [13, 14]. Several N. europaea iron-repressible genes Selleck PD0332991 contain sequences similar to the E. coli Fur box (unpublished data) in their promoter regions; hence it is likely that a Fur-like repressor regulates iron uptake genes in N. europaea as well. Indeed, sequence annotation of N. europaea genome revealed three genes encoding fur BAY 57-1293 ic50 homologs (NE0616, NE0730, NE1722) that contain characteristic Fur domains [9]. Multiple fur homologs have been described for several bacteria. Different species have a variable number of genes bearing the Fur domain. For example, E. coli [15] has two, Bacillus subtilis [16], Mycobacterium smegmatis have three, Staphylococcus aureus and some species of Brucella have four and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis has five fur homologs [17]. The apparent redundancy in fur homologs has been clarified by a considerable amount of experimental Z-IETD-FMK mouse data obtained from genetic and biochemical analysis in bacteria such as E. coli and B. subtilis [15, 16, 18–20]. The experimental data suggests that the Fur protein family has several subclasses with different functions

[19]. The major Fe-sensing Fur subclass is mainly involved in the control of iron homeostasis unless [21]. A second subclass controls the expression of genes involved in the response of bacteria to oxidative stress (i.e. PerR), but it does not appear to be involved in the cellular response to iron [16]. A third subclass called Zur (zinc uptake regulator) controls the uptake of zinc in E. c oli [15, 20] and B. subtilis [18]. The Fe-sensing Fur protein has been extensively studied and is shown to act as a global regulator in response to environmental iron concentration due to its involvement in the regulation

of activities as varied as the acid tolerance response, the oxidative stress response, metabolic pathways, and virulence factors [6]. In this study, we aimed to characterize the regulatory role of a fur homolog from N. europaea. Using genetic complementation studies, we demonstrated that one fur homolog (NE0616) out of three in N. europaea encoded a functional Fur protein. Here we report the construction of the N. europaea fur promoter knockout mutant (fur:kanP) strain, its effect on the expression of Fe-regulated proteins and the physiology of N. europaea. Results Sequence analysis of N. europaea fur homologs The three N. europaea Fur-like repressors encoded by NE0616, NE0730, NE1722 are only distantly related to each other with 25% to 35% amino acid identity. The Fur homolog encoded by NE0616 is most similar (~84% similar to E. coli Fur protein) in sequence to various Gram-negative Fe-sensing Fur proteins.

Deep sequencing appears to be a very promising technique for identifying novel miRNA biomarkers [25]. This technology can be used to identify tissue and stage specific expression, and compare data with miRNAs profiles in different diseases [26–28]. These methods Mocetinostat open exciting avenues for non-invasive quantification of miRNAs. However, reproducibility among different methods remains a major concern. Chen et al. found a weak correlation between results obtained by qRT-PCR array and oligonucleotide microchip methods, indicating considerable variability between the

two assay platforms [29]. Clearly, more work is necessary to identify suitably standardized and normalized protocols. Origin of circulating miRNAs The question of whether tumor-associated miRNAs detected in circulation results from tumor cell death and lyses, or instead from secretion by tumor cells remains unanswered. The latest findings concerning exosomal miRNAs could uncover the miRNA secretory mechanism. As previously mentioned, miRNAs have proven to be robust against external factors, such as enzymatic degradation, freeze-thaw cycles, and extreme pH conditions [30, 31]. Mitchell

et al., by applying multiple steps of filtration and centrifugation to separate cells from plasma and recover RNA from both sections, demonstrated YH25448 cell line that serum miRNAs were not associated with cells or larger cell fragments, but existed in a stable and protected form [30]. The unexpected stability of circulating miRNAs in blood begs the question of what mechanism protects circulating miRNAs from degradation. Recent studies have revealed that miRNAs may be protected either in microvesicles (up to 1 μm) or in small membrane vesicles of endocytic origin called exosomes (50–100 nm) [32, 33]. TEW-7197 chemical structure Kosaka and colleagues found that miRNA are first incorporated into exosomal particles, Megestrol Acetate after which

a surge of cellular ceramide stimulates the release of exosomes. Ceramide biosynthesis is regulated by neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase). Treated HEK293 cells with nSMase inhibitor, GW4869, extracellular endogenous miR-16 and miR-146a were reduced in a dose-dependent manner, while their cellular expression levels remained unchanged. Furthermore, miRNAs packaged in exosomes can be delivered to recipient cells where they exert gene silencing through the same mechanism as cellular miRNAs [34]. Another study by Pigati suggests that miRNAs release into blood, milk and ductal fluids is selective and that this selectivity may correlate with malignancy. In particular, while the bulk of miR-451 and miR-1246 produced by malignant mammary epithelial cells were released, the majority of these miRNAs produced by non-malignant mammary epithelial cells was retained [35].

Statistical analysis Age is presented as median and interquartile range (IQR) because the data showed departures from normality (according to Shapiro-Wilk’s

test). The χ2 method was used to test frequencies of genotypes/allele in prostate Ro 61-8048 chemical structure cancer patients and controls. buy Mdivi1 The strength of the nominal association in the contingency tables is reflected by Cramér’s (V) coefficient of contingency. The odds ratios (OR), estimates of the relative risk, with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were computed to assess strengths of association of the genotypes with prostate cancer. All p values cited are two-sided alternatives; differences resulting in a p value of less or equal to 0.05 were declared statistically significant [16]. The Hardy Weinberg equilibrium was tested for the genotype proportions in the control group, as a measure for quality control. Results Since previous reports suggested that there are no differences in GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 allele frequencies in relation to age and sex [17], we conducted a retrospective study on a selected population of men in order to examine whether the gene frequencies were consistent with research findings find more across Europe. Statistical analysis of data collected from a survey of community sample in the north-western part of Slovakia showed

that our estimates were not significantly different from either those found in the Caucasian population of Garte and co-workers [1] (Table 2) or those found previously by a research group in Slovakia [1] (Table 3). Table 2 Distribution of GSTP1, GSTT1 and GSTM1 genotypes in our control group

and in Caucasian population (GSEC project-Genetic Susceptibility to Environmental Carcinogens) published by Garte and co-workers [1]. Polymorphism Our control group Number (%) of subjects Caucasians-GSEC Number (%) of subjects 95% CI for proportion difference Cramér’s V p-value GSTP1           No. 228 1137       Ile/Ile 110 (48.2) 498 (43.8) -0.03 to 0.12 0.033 0.22 Ile/Val+Val/Val 118 (51.8) 561 (49.3) -0.05 to 0.09 0.018 0.51 GSTT1           No. 228 5577       positive 183 (80.3) 4774 (80.2)       null 45 (19.7) 1103 (19.8) -0.05 to 0.06 0.005 0.99 GSTM1           No. 228 10514       positive 98 (43.0) 4931 (46.9) Org 27569       null 130 (57.0) 5583 (53.1) -0.03 to 0.10 0.011 0.24 Table 3 Distribution of GSTT1 and GSTM1 genotypes in our control group and in Slovak population (GSEC project-Genetic Susceptibility to Environmental Carcinogens) published by Garte and co-workers [1]. Polymorphism Our control group Number (%) of subjects Slovak population-GSEC Number (%) of subjects 95% CI for proportion difference Cramér’s V p-value GSTT1           No. 228 332       positive 183 (80.3) 272 (82.0)       null 45 (19.7) 60 (18.0) -0.05 to 0.09 0.021 0.62 GSTM1           No. 228 332       positive 98 (43.0) 162 (48.8)       null 130 (57.0) 170 (51.2) -0.03 to 0.14 -0.057 0.

In this study, we show that the applied single mediators, except for ATRA, reduce the metabolic activity in all MB cell lines. In combinatorial

treatments with the epigenetic modifier 5-aza-dC, resveratrol reveals the strongest decrease in metabolic activity, but it can not further reduce the 5-aza-dC-induced decrease of clonogenic survival. Methods Modulators 5-Aza-2’deoxycytidine (decitabine, trade name Dacogen®), all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), resveratrol, and valproic acid were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Munich, Germany). Abacavir buy Lazertinib hemisulfate was kindly provided from GlaxoSmithKline (Hamburg, Germany) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA, vorinostat, trade name Zolinza®) from MSD (Haar, Germany). Stock solutions were prepared as follows and stored at – 20°C: 10 mM 5-aza-dC in PBS; 500 μM ATRA in 10% ethanol (stored at – 80°C); 500 μM resveratrol in 1% ethanol; 1 M valproic acid in PBS; 100 mM abacavir in PBS; 100 μM SAHA in 0.25% DMSO. Further work solutions were made in PBS and administered in equal dilutions to the cell medium. To exclude effects based on ethanol or DMSO

applications, appropriate controls were implemented. Cell lines and cell culture The human MB cell line MEB-Med8a was kindly provided by Prof. T. Pietsch Osimertinib molecular weight (Department of Neuropathology, University of Bonn Medical Centre, Bonn, Germany). The MB cell lines D283-Med and DAOY were purchased from ATCC cell biology collection (Manassas VA, USA). D283-Med and DAOY were maintained in MEM (Sigma-Aldrich, Munich, Germany) including 2 mM L-glutamine (Biochrom, Berlin, Germany), MEB-Med8a in DMEM with 4.5 g glucose (Lonza, Basel, Switzerland), all GS-9973 mw supplemented with 10% FCS (PAA, Yeovil, Somerset, UK), 100 U/ml

penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Biochrom, Berlin, Germany) at 37°C and 5% CO2 unless otherwise noted. Metabolic activity To examine metabolic activity, cells were seeded in triplicates in 96-well plates, and after 24 h cells were grown with or without the modulator for three or, in case of 5-aza-dC, for three and six days. Combinatorial treatments were executed with/without 3 μM (D283-Med) or 5 μM (DAOY, MEB-Med8a) 5-aza-dC and the second drug (concentrations listed in Table 1). After incubation, medium was discarded, and cells were incubated (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate with normal medium including 10% WST-1 reagent (Roche, Basel, Switzerland) for 1–2 h. Metabolically active cells have the ability to metabolize the tetrazolium salt WST-1 into a formazan dye. The amount of formed formazan dye directly correlates with the number of viable cells. Measuring the formazan dye extinction at 450 nm wave length relative to medium control corresponds to the metabolic activity of the viable cells. IC 30 values were calculated by generating an exponential or linear trend using Microsoft Excel 2003 software.

Climate change can impact on the range dynamics of species and can induce shifts in their distribution patterns. Understanding

and quantifying such climate change induced range shifts is important for conservation management and the planning of biotope corridors, but also for evaluating effects on newly colonized habitats and for guiding adaptation measures. In the first paper of this issue, Buse et al. (2013) reconstructed the immigration of the oak-inhabiting jewel beetle Coraebus florentinus from Mediterranean forest ecosystems to Germany since the 1950s. Using three independent modelling approaches they analysed abiotic factors which determine the current spatial distribution of the beetle in southwest Germany. The authors link the range extension to the main factors of “mean maximum temperature” and “mean precipitation” in summer, which have both been altered by climate change Selumetinib purchase during recent decades. The warmer and dryer conditions in southwest Germany favoured the reproduction and enabled the migration success of Coraebus florentinus. Considering current projections of climate change, the jewel beetle is expected to extend its range further north into Central Europe in the future and

might particularly affect young oak stands on sandy and dry sites. This AP24534 manufacturer calls for an adaptation of forest management for the conservation of species-rich oak stands and a revision of the conservation status and categorization of the beetle as a ID-8 critically endangered species in Germany. The direct and indirect impacts of SGC-CBP30 mouse climatic alterations on Mediterranean forest ecosystems in Greece are the subject of the study by Chrysopolitou et al. (2013). Greece is projected to be among the most vulnerable countries to climate change in Europe. In this context, the presented study of climate change effects on the appearance

of fungal pathogens and bark beetle populations as well as on woody vegetation composition could be a valuable contribution to the development of adaptation measures in Mediterranean forest ecosystems in general. The authors collected evidence for the link between alterations in temperature and precipitation regimes and the outbreaks of pathogens, which jointly caused the dieback of tree species (especially conifer species), in four different mountainous study areas in Greece. However, the impacts on tree species composition have varied between the different study areas which in turn calls for the development of regionalized adaptation measures within forest and conservation management and further research on the underlying driving forces. The subsequent three papers focus on adaptation strategies and measures for forest and conservation management aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on forest biodiversity.

For both organisms, there was an inverse correlation between day 2 bacterial density and survival [for E. coli OP50 (R = 0.83; Figure 6C), and

S. typhimurium SL1344 (R = 0.89; Figure 6D)]. These strong relationships suggest that immune handling of bacterial load in the intestine of early adults is an important causative factor in determining lifespan. We chose day 2 to study, because colonization levels were significantly differed amongst the C. elegans mutants at that time point (Figure 2E). However we also performed correlations between longevity and bacterial counts for other time points (see Additional file 3), as well as calculations based on a Cox Model, which takes into account bacterial accumulation Cisplatin research buy over time (see Additional file 4). Both results suggest that there exists a significant relationship between longevity and bacterial load throughout early adulthood. Figure 6 Relationship between C. elegans genotype, colonizing bacterial species, and lifespan. Symbols for the 14 worm genotypes are as indicated in Table 1. Panel A: Relationship of lifespans for worms grown on E. coli OP50 and S. typhimurium SL1344, measured as TD50. Worm survival is strongly correlated with growth on the two organisms (R = 0.98;

p < 0.0001). Panel B: Relationship of intestinal bacterial density for worms grown on E. coli OP50 or S. typhimurium, measured as this website day 2 log10 cfu. Results show a strong direct correlation for the two bacterial https://www.selleckchem.com/products/lazertinib-yh25448-gns-1480.html species (R = 0.82; p < 0.001). Panel C: Relationship between lifespan and intestinal bacterial density for C. elegans grown on E. coli OP50 lawns.

There is an inverse correlation between intestinal bacterial density and survival (R = 0.83; p < 0.001). Panel D: Relationship between lifespan and intestinal bacterial density for C. elegans grown on S. typhimurium SL1344 lawns. There is an inverse correlation between intestinal bacterial density and survival (R = 0.89; p < 0.001). Relationships between introduced and surviving bacteria in worms with enhanced intestinal immunity The C. elegans pharynx contains a grinder that breaks up bacterial cells to provide nutrients for the worm [54]. Grinder-defective worms (e.g. due to phm-2 mutation) have shortened MYO10 lifespan [24]. We hypothesized that the reduced lifespan was related to increased accumulation of viable bacteria in the worm intestine. When grown on an E. coli OP50 lawn, the number of viable bacterial cells recovered from the intestine of phm-2 mutants was about 102 E. coli cfu/worm at L4 stage (day 0), and increased to 104 cfu/worm by day 4 (L4 + 4), ~10-fold higher than levels observed in N2 worms (Figure 7A). A similar trend was observed when phm-2 mutants were grown on S. typhimurium SL1344 lawns, but colonization reached higher bacterial densities, a difference paralleling the other worm genotypes (Figure 7C). After day 4, bacterial concentrations remain on a plateau (data not shown), similar to the observations for the other genotypes.