A frontoparietal network may be relevant for intelligence, but also for working memory.37 A study by Gray et al38 tested whether fluid or reasoning ability (Gf) was mediated by neural mechanisms supporting working memory. Sixty participants performed verbal and nonverbal working memory tasks. They had to indicate if a Selleckchem Proteasome inhibitor current item matched the item they saw 3 items previously (3-back). Brain activity was measured by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The demand for working memory varied across trials. Results showed that: (i) participants scoring higher on the Progressive Matrices Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Test (a measure related to fluid g – Gf) were more accurate in the 3-back task; and (ii) only lateral prefrontal

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and parietal regions mediated the correlation between

Gf and 3-back performance. These fMRI results are consistent with the voxel-based morphometry (VBM) study reported by Colom et al (N = 48).39 In agreement with the well established fact that the g factor and working memory capacity are very highly correlated,40-45 these researchers predicted that g and working memory would share significant Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical common neural networks. Therefore, using a VBM approach they quantified the overlap in brain areas where regional gray matter was correlated with measures of general intelligence and working memory, finding a common neuroanatomic framework supported by frontal gray matter regions belonging to BA 10 and by the right inferior parietal lobule (BA 40). Of note, this study also showed: (i) more gray matter recruitment for the more cognitively complex tasks (= more highly g loaded); and (ii) the complex span task (backward digit span) showed more gray matter overlap with the general factor of intelligence Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical than the simple span task (forward digit span, (Figure 5). These results were interpreted after the theory proposed by Cowan,46 namely that parietal regions support “capacity limitations,” whereas frontal areas underlie the “control of attention.” Figure 5. Overlap of correlations between gray matter and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical g (conjunction of block design and vocabulary)

and gray matter and forward (FDS) and backward (BDS) digit span scores (P<01).39 A similar commonality between intelligence and working memory was found in animal studies. Matzel below and Kolata47 reviewed several reports in which performance of laboratory mice was measured in a variety of attention and learning tasks. These are their most prominent conclusions: The “positive manifold” (eg, scores on cognitive tasks of various kinds are positively correlated) found in humans also applied to mice Storage and processing components of working memory accounted for the strong relationship between this cognitive function and g Networks involved in working memory overlap with those relevant for intelligence. These findings support an evolutionary conservation process of the structure and determinants of intelligence beyond humans.48 Giftedness has been also investigated with related findings.

Progressive metabolic disease was considered as an increase in [18F]-FDG tumor SUV of greater than 25% within the tumor region; stable metabolic disease as an increase in tumor [18F]-FDG SUV of less than 25% or a decrease of less than 25%; partial metabolic response as a reduction greater than 25% in tumor [18F]-FDG SUV; and complete metabolic response as the complete resolution of [18F]-FDG uptake within the tumor volume. Due to the necessity of bypassing chemotherapeutic effect and to avoid the fluctuation in 18F-FDG uptake that may occur early after treatment (stunning or flare of tumor uptake) a minimum of ten days after the end Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of chemotherapy was required before PET/TC performance

(9). Pathologic response Pathologic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical staging was performed according to the TNM classification (2). Lymphovascular and perineural invasion, distal and circumferential margins

were also documented. Tumor regression grade (TRG) was reported according to the scale proposed by Ruo et al. for rectal cancer (10). This classification considers 6 grades of response: grade 0 (no response to treatment), grade 1 (response <33%), grade 2 (response Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical between 33% and 66%), grade 3 (response between 66% and 94%), grade 3+ (95-99% response, focus or microscopic residual), and grade 4 [no viable tumor identified, pathological complete response (PCR)]. Relationship between radiologic, metabolic and pathologic findings find more correlation between radiological and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical pathological findings was assessed

in order to determine the predictive value of the CT scan after neoadjuvant treatment. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) were calculated for T stage, N stage and for TN stage. Relationship between tumor volume changes by CT scan, SUV-FDG uptake by PET, and pathologic response were also analysed. Statistical analysis All the statistical analyses were done using the SPSS/PC v.15 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for Windows statistical package (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Results were expressed as mean (standard deviation) or median (P25-P75) for continuous variables depending on whether normal distribution was followed or not. Proportion was used for qualitative variables. Relationship between variables were studied by Student-t (or Mann-Whitney U, depending if data followed a normal distribution or did not) and χ2 tests. Student’s t or Wilcoxon test was also also employed for paired samples. Association was measured by ANOVA and Spearman correlation. A P value <0.05 was considered significant. Results From July 2009 to June 2012, forty-four consecutive patients completed neoadjuvant treatment and underwent surgery. Median age was 66.8 years, 65.9% (29/44) of them were males and the mean BMI was 26.7 kg/m2 The most frequent tumor location was sigmoid colon (47.7%, 21/44) followed by ascending colon (34.1%, 15/44). Radiologic response Radiologic response was reported in the 42 patients (95.

28 Specifically, a hybrid approach that combined biological slice preparation and analog electronics was employed to Abiraterone chemical structure provide activity-dependent (feedback) electric fields by exogenous stimulation. Briefly, multiunit spiking activity was processed in real time to generate a low-pass filtered waveform that tracked the spiking activity (“simulated endogenous electric field”). Basing the signal on the multiunit activity was crucial,

since multiunit activity (in contrast to LFP) can be recorded in the presence of low-frequency Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical electric stimulation that tracks network activity. When such feedback electric fields were applied, spontaneous rhythmic activity in the slice was enhanced. Importantly, when the same system was used to suppress Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the activitydependent electric field, a reduction in the oscillatorystructure was found. Together these experiments provided strong support for endogenous feedback electric fields playing an active role in shaping (synchronized) cortical network dynamics. Detailed biophysical modeling of such cortical networks exposed

to activity-dependent Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical electric fields further validated these findings. Therefore, the endogenous electric fields generated by structured cortical network activity may be more than an epiphenomenon, but rather may play an active role as a neuronal communication mechanism. Figure 2. Schematic representation of feedforward and feedback control of complex systems. Feedforward input is predetermined and independent of the response of the system to the input. Examples of feedforward signals in the context of this review are exogenous … Possible functional roles of endogenous electric fields Given the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical finding that endogenous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical electric fields can enhance rhythmic cortical network

dynamics, the functional roles served by this neuronal communication mechanism become an open question. When considering this question, we are left to hypothesize in the absence of experimental data. This is due to the (presumed) impossibility of isolating the feedback signal in intact brains, as opposed to slice preparations, where the relative lack of an endogenous field allows for simulation of endogenous fields by application of exogenous fields. From a conceptual viewpoint, it may be informative to consider the unique properties of such a neural 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase communication mode, particularly in contrast to the canonical chemical synaptic transmission. First, communication by endogenous electric fields requires networkwide temporal organization of activity, such as oscillatory activity patterns, for electric fields to be of sufficient amplitude to modulate neuronal membrane voltage. Therefore, activity enhancement by an endogenous electric field is very likely limited to a subset of activity patterns that the cortex generates.

137,147 Further, 5-HT dysfunction due to certain genetic variations in SERT and 5-HT receptor sequences is now detectable by functional neuroimaging.87,150-150 Although not quite completely understood,

these recent data from living human brain imaging support and often greatly extend, previous data obtained by conventional postmortem investigations. Serotonergic circuitries in function Serotonergic circuitries chiefly include 5-HT-producing neurons, 5-HT-autoreceptors (ie, somatodendritic 5HT1 A receptors, 5-HT1B/1D receptors in terminal endings) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and other neurotransmitter or hormone receptors including alpha-adrenoceptors, CRF receptors, tachykinin receptors, estrogen receptor beta and more recently demonstrated, oxytocin receptors151

involved in neuronal firing and 5-HT release. Functionally connected neuronal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical elements bearing 5-HT-heteroreceptors (often called postsynaptic or perisynaptic receptors, see below) are obviously another major component of the serotonergic neurotransmission.100,152,153 Additionally, classical neurotransmitters (eg, GABA, glutamate, dopamine, noradrenaline), peptidergic neuromodulators (eg, substance P), and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical endocannabinoid coexpression within 5-HT neurons also contribute to the serotonergic function.154,155 Considering that in several Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical brain areas, including the neocortex

and the hippocampus, 5-HT wired neurotransmission (WT) via true synapses coexists with volume transmission (VT), the terms pre- and postsynaptic should be used with caution. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical In fact, distances between release sites and receptors are not of the same magnitude, generally a few nm for WT vs up to 10 µm for VT. Thus, some authors consider that neuropsychoactive drugs act rather as volume transmission signals.156 Due to ethical and methodological limitations, our knowledge on neurotransmitter circuitries and their interconnections in human CNS largely benefits from that described with much detail in nonhuman INCB018424 price primates and other species including cat and rodents. In laboratory animal species, the anatomical distribution of brain 5-HT neurons was often completed by other approaches such as transneuronal Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase retrograde transport, selective lesions, microdialysis, electrophysiology associated with pharmacological manipulations, and more recently developed wireless fast-scan cyclic voltametry, a promising tool for the in vivo monitoring of 5-HT in the brain.157 Therefore, the circuitries of serotonergic neurons in the human brain are mainly based on those known in other mammals.

Data regarding the patients’ demographic characteristics, comorbidities, and clinical findings were recorded using a questionnaire. All the patients underwent upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy with a small, flexible Olympus (Melville, NY) GIF-N30 endoscope by four pediatric gastroenterologists in the Pediatric Gastroenterology Department of our center, and the findings were recorded in the questionnaire. The patients received Midazolam

(1mg/kg) intravenously several minutes before endoscopy as a sedative agent. Several mucosal biopsies were taken under direct visualization of the mucosa and the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical vasculature. Phosphate-buffered formalin was used for fixing the specimens and biopsies. Paraffin-embedded Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical specimens were sectioned in 5-6 µm slices and were further stained with hematoxylin and eosin according to the standard laboratory methods. All the

slides were reviewed by a pathologist, and the results were recorded in the questionnaire. The criteria for reflux esophagitis were comprised of basal zone hyperplasia, elongated stromal papillae, and vascular ingrowths. The drugs consumed by the patients were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical further categorized as those being unrelated to esophagitis, those being responsible for inducing esophagitis, and those being effective in the treatment of esophagitis. NSAIDs, Prednisolone, Mycophenolate Mofetil (MEK inhibitor CellCept), Cyclosporine, Acyclovir, Metronidazole, Meropenem, Cyclophosphamide, Methotrexate, Warfarin, Ciprofloxacin, Erythromycin, Co-trimoxazole, Fluconazole, Mesalamine, and Tacrolimus were considered to be responsible for inducing esophagitis, whereas Omeprazole, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Pantoprazole, Metoclopramide, Ondansetron, Ranitidine, Cimetidine, aluminium-magnesium, and Motilium were considered as effective agents in the treatment of esophagitis. The data were prospectively entered into a computer database, and were further analyzed by SPSS software, version 14.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). The data are reported as mean±SD or proportions. Results We studied 125 children with pathology-confirmed esophagitis. The study population consisted of 61

(48.8%) girls and 64 (51.2%) boys at a mean age of Bumetanide 6.6±5.5 years. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients are summarized in table 1. Table 1 Demographic and clinical characteristics of 125 pediatric patients with esophagitis Repeated vomiting was the prominent symptom in our series, which was it being reported by 75 (60%) patients, followed by fever in 35 (28%) and failure to thrive in 24 (19.2%). Most of the patients (60%) were more than 2 years of age and, thus, consumed a large variety of food. However, 16 (12.7%) patients were breastfed with a dairy elimination diet, while 14 (11.2%) were breastfed. The drugs being consumed by 107 (85.6%) patients were found to be responsible for inducing esophagitis, whereas in the others (14.4%), the drugs were unrelated to the disease. Liver transplantation (44.9%) and thrombocytopenia (23.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation It remains unclear how exactly weak electric fields can modulate the mesoscopic and macroscopic dynamics of cortical networks. However, one inroad to our understanding resulted from the application of a conceptual approach that originated in physics. Given the often periodic (ie, rhythmic) structure of cortical network activity, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the intuitive choice of stimulation waveform is one that is equally rhythmic. This reasoning has led to the early use of transcranial alternate current stimulation (t ACS), which has shown very interesting neurobiological effects

despite a lack of understanding regarding if and how such periodic stimulation interacts with the intrinsic oscillators of cortical networks. The most prominent, paradigm-changing study employed tACS (in combination with a DC offset, technically so-tDCS) to enhance slow oscillatory activity (<1 Hz, the so-called slow oscillation, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical originally described in studies on cats by Steriade and colleagues)41,42 during

slow-wave sleep.43 It has long been hypothesized for a long time that slowwave sleep is crucial for sleep-dependent learning and memory, and it Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was thus a very significant Bcr-Abl inhibitor finding that tACS at 0.75 Hz (the stimulation signal also included a DC bias) enhanced memory consolidation in healthyhuman study participants. However, although the EEG confirmed an enhancement of slow rhythmic activity, the stimulation was not quite as specific in its effects, since it also Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical enhanced activity signatures in higher frequency bands (sleep spindles, 10-16 Hz) that have also been associated with learning and memory.44,45 Interestingly, the same authors did not find a similar effect Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for the same stimulation paradigm in awake subjects,46 suggesting that the state of the brain may contribute to the response to stimulation (and its behavioral outcomes). Nevertheless, this study provided very strong motivation for the subsequent use of tACS to manipulate cortical oscillations, with the hope for a frequency-specific, noninvasive stimulation

modality. Tolmetin Indeed, a-band tACS selectively enhanced a oscillations in occipital cortex47 and differed in its effect on spontaneous EEG activity depending on the brain state as defined by whether the subjects’ eyes were open or closed.48 Additionally, tACS has been demonstrated to alter visual detection performance.49 Tactile sensations were elicited by tACS over the primary somatosensory cortex, but only for α and high-γ stimulation frequencies.50 Interestingly, stimulation in the α-band modulated γ-oscillations in the motor system, suggesting that stimulation of a given frequency band can also affect other frequency bands and therefore provide a counterargument to the idea of frequency-specific stimulation effects.

However, the equivalent prevalence rates

for mental disorders were only 32% (at least one diagnosis over a lifetime period) and 20% (at least one diagnosis over a 12-month period) in the ECA study. Analysis of the lifetime prevalence rates for each clinical entity (in decreasing order) provides an explanation. The difference mainly lies in depressive disorders and addictions, whose prevalence could arguably have increased. The difference in data between the ECA and NCS studies concerning phobic disorders is comparable to that observed in data originating between different ECA study centers, and is probably attributable Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to semiological data recording methods. Finally, the prevalence Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of schizophrenia is lower, which could be partly due to a lower prevalence of schizophrenia and partly due to the fact that institutionalized

patients were excluded from the NCS study. On the other hand, Angst and Wicki12 conducted a study in Zurich to identify recurrent brief anxiety (RBA) syndromes. The concept of brief and transient psychiatric pathologies has long been known, but has received an increasing amount of attention Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the past few years. The terms recurrent brief depression (RED), RBA, recurrent brief hypomania, neurasthenia, and insomnia have all been coined recently. All these syndromes last 1 to 3 days on average, and are highly recurrent (at least once a month over a whole year). The authors

who developed these concepts have defined Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical them by means of the following diagnostic criteria12: Anxiety (fear of being alone, apprehension of impending doom, fear of the next day dawning). Three of the four GAD symptoms as described in DSM-III (motor tension, neurovegetative hyperactivity, apprehension, exacerbated awareness while exploring surroundings). Anxious mood for 1 to 13 days, at least once a month during the previous year. Subjective professional impairment of handicap. The authors12 noticed that RBA morbidity was often associated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with PDs and RED, and that many RBA patients had past familial and personal history of anxiety and depression. Angst and Wicki therefore suggested that the association of RBA and RBD could reflect a shared genetic predisposition for depression and anxiety.12 The comorbidity rate of RBA of with other diagnoses is such (>75% with depression, >25% with phobias, >16% with PD, and >6% with GAD) that one can understandably challenge the authenticity of this clinical entity. Furthermore, the symptomatic definition of RBA does not identify any distinctive characteristic from those of GAD, aside from duration. These concepts can be questioned in the same way that one can challenge the existence of subsyndromic states. These states are related to entities defined by classical criteria systems (DSM-III, DSM-IV, or ICD-10), but beta-catenin inhibitor differ only because they consist of n-1 or n-2 symptoms.

8°C), and dyspnea. On admission,

the patient was conscious and reported chills, coughs, and rhinorrhea of two days’ duration. She had developed rash on her face six days after starting epilepsy treatment, with the condition progressing rapidly to her trunk, limbs, neck, and chest over the next four days. The facial rash subsequently evolved into pustules. On examination, there were multiple erosions over the mouth and vulva, and the conjunctiva was inflamed. Nikolsky’s sign Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was positive. The total extent of the erythematous rash was 55% of the BSA. Histological investigation of the injured skin revealed an aspect for drug eruption (extensive epidermal necrosis, focal subepidermal necrotic blisters, melanin incontinence, and moderate perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate in the absence of eosinophils, neutrophils, and viral inclusions). Immunofluorescence

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical markers showed negative staining. The diagnosis of SJS-TEN caused by antiepileptic drugs was established. On the other hand, laboratory testing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical revealed anemia, eosinophilia, increased inflammatory markers, and white blood cell count of 10×109 /µL. Chest X-ray demonstrated multifocal patch consolidations with ground-glass opacity in both lungs. No bacterial pathogen was isolated in the respiratory tract, urine, and blood. Viral serology (HIV and hepatitis B and C) was negative. Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) (R-gène® Kits) of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) revealed that the cause of the respiratory symptom was cytomegalovirus (CMV); the finding was thereafter confirmed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical by cell culture on MRC-5 cells. Prior serology data showed that our patient had already sustained a primary CMV infection at 6 years old, which was in favour of the current reactivation. As was expected, RT-PCR in blood showed fulminant viremia

with 459 copies/ml (threshold: Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 350). The antiepileptic drugs were withdrawn and anticoagulant therapy, parenteral analgesia, eye drops, and mouth antiseptic therapy were initiated. Intravenous Ganciclovir (10 mg/kg/day) was started. Oxygen therapy was initiated with parenteral nutrition and adequate hydration. Serial BAL assays were negative six days after the commencement of antiviral therapy, and the skin lesions began to heal without the need to introduce corticosteroids. The patient’s condition Dipeptidyl peptidase improved, and she was transferred to the general ward with a prescription of Ganciclovir for a further two weeks. Tacedinaline manufacturer Discussion TEN and SJS are severe adverse cutaneous drug reactions.4,5 Treatment with corticosteroids is recommended but not necessarily effective.5-7 Several drugs are at “high” risk of inducing TEN-SJS.1 Mycoplasma pneumoniae and herpesvirus infections are well-documented causes. In some rare cases, however, the etiology remains unknown.

However, it is possible to reach it in a healthy way. Many chronic diseases are preventable, and their prevention and early management mean reduction of enormous human, social, and economic cost to the country. This is especially important for developing countries.7 In Healthy People 2010, regular physical activity is ranked as a leading health indicator, and has been shown

to have many health benefits for all age groups.8 According to the World Health Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Organization,9 physical activity is the single most useful thing that individuals can do to maintain their health, daily function and quality of life. The challenge of the public health is to promote the awareness of physical activity and its implementation as an important aspect of a healthy lifestyle among older adults. Physical activity may also offer a useful alternative to drug management by reducing the need Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for medication in some conditions, such as hypertension and type 2 diabetes in elder people.2 The benefits for elder people include improved fitness and quality of life.10 Unfortunately, despite the extensive benefits of physical activity, the population of older people

is much less active than desired.8 Therefore, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the need to understand physical activity behavior and implement effective intervention strategies is paramount. This study was designed to examine to predictors of physical activity intention and behavior in a sample of elderly men of nursing home residents using theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the self-efficacy

construct. Theory of Planned Behavior Theories can be used to plan these programs by providing a method of selleck screening library understanding why people are or are not following public health and medical advice. Existing theories can help pinpoint what you need to know before developing an intervention Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical program and provide insight into how to shape program Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical strategies to effectively reach people and organizations. They can also help identify what should be monitored, measured and or compared to during program evaluations.11 The TPB explains and predicts physical activity behavior effectively.12 The TPB suggests that the proximal determinant of a volitional behavior is one’s intention to engage in that behavior. Intentions are the motivational factors that influence a behavior.13 Subjective norm and attitude are suggested to exert their effects Chlormezanone upon a behavior through its influence on one’s intentions. Subjective norm assesses the social pressures on an individual to perform or not to perform a particular behavior. Attitude is an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of a particular behavior. Attitude is further divided into affective and instrumental attitudes. Previous research has consistently identified the construct distinction of these two attitudinal components.14 Thus in this study, affective and instrumental attitudes were modeled as distinct constructs. Currently, there are few studies on the behavioral theories in elder men.

Also, it is not clarified, whether an enclosure, similar to the mesh bag used in the ICH trial, is necessary for intraventricular or intracerebral implantation. It might be safe and effective to inject the cell capsules without such containment. However, to validate this application, additional prelearn more Clinical work addressing mainly acute and chronic safety issues is required. Outlook While encapsulated cell biodelivery has a reasonable perspective Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for a clinical application in traumatic brain injury, the translation of the existing findings requires extensive additional experimental studies. Selected abbreviations and acronyms ESC embryonic

stem cell NSC neural stem cell GLP Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical glucagon-like peptide MSC mesenchymal stem cell hMSC human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells CCI controlled cortical impact MAP microtubule-associated protein GFAP glial fibrillary acidic protein
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) produces clinical problems and care needs that are intrinsically

and unavoidably neuropsychiatric during both the early and late post-injury periods. In the acute injury period, cognitive impairments are nearly universal,1-5 and are frequently accompanied by disturbances of emotion, behavior, and/or sensorimotor function.1-10 Neurotraumainduced Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neuropsychiatric disturbances are especially prominent, among individuals who are hospitalized after TBI7-11 and, in this subpopulation, often become chronic conditions.12,17 The neuropsychiatric consequences Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of TBI contribute substantially to post-injury disability,16-18 and diminish the quality of life experienced by persons with TBI and their families.17,19-21 We suggested elsewhere6,22 that, adverse short- and long-term TBI outcomes might be mitigated most effectively by initiating neuropsychiatric evaluation and management, of persons with TBI during the early post-injury (ie,

the neurocritical care and inpatient rehabilitation) periods. Although the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical hypotheses borne of this suggestion remain incompletely tested, a complementary literature supports the potential benefits of early neuropsychiatric intervention provided over to patients engaged in acute neurorehabilitation after TBI.8,23-25 Accordingly, developing further the neuropsychiatric expertise of physicians and other specialists providing care to persons with TBI in such settings is an important, objective. Toward that end, this article addresses the evaluation and management of neuropsychiatric disturbances among persons receiving rehabilitation after TBI. Clinical case definitions of TBI are described first. The differential diagnoses of event-related disturbances of neuropsychiatric function arc considered, after which the clinical and neurobiological heterogeneity of TBI are discussed.